Xenophobia in South Africa is a social-political ill. Despite the huge xenophobic attack that took place in May 2008 leaving so many people homeless, wounded and dead, xenophobia still continues to occur in several ways all over South Africa. Its roots can be traced back to the period of apartheid when black South Africans suffered various types of racial discrimination and other forms of subjugation from the hands of their white compatriots, who form a tiny minority of the country‘s population. It would appear that having forced their way out of the period of apartheid, Black South Africans have created a brutal culture of hostility towards 'foreigners' from the rest of Africa. In their search for higher education, students from the rest of the continent have been attracted to South Africa by its excellent social infrastructure and the relative buoyancy of its economy. These migrant students are faced with various challenges in their daily activities both on and off campus. The most salient of this would seem to be their experience of xenophobia. A case in point is the female African students at UKZN. This is in addition to the basic fact that women are, almost by definition, a vulnerable group. The violence that many women experience is caused by numerous identities such as race, class, sexual orientation, HIV status, disability and other markers of difference. These markers not only increase female vulnerability but they also limit their access to legal redress and health and psychosocial services. This phenomenon often gives men an advantage over women in society. Such forms of discrimination need to be investigated and interrogated within the context of xenophobia. Though there has not been any further major attack in the aftermath of the 2008 xenophobic violence, the sporadic experiences amongst, for example, foreign female African students at UKZN, if ignored, may gradually lead to a violent outbreak. This study attempts to capture and critically analyse the understanding of these students on the subject of xenophobia, their experiences and the probable effects xenophobia has, so far, had on their stay in South Africa. The study also seeks to understand how these students respond to the attacks and if they are aware of policies made by the government or university authorities to assist them. Based on the interviews, the study recommends how to eradicate xenophobia, given that existing policies seem to be working only in presumption. It further elaborates on the gender dynamics of xenophobia and concludes on the feelings of xenophilia (experience of love by foreigners from the local South Africans) by the students despite the existence of xenophobia in South Africa. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

This case study is a documentation of localised gendered and youth perspectives regarding food-(in)security, capabilities, rights and freedom. This dissertation explores localised youth and gendered perceptions of food-security by applying Amartya Sen‟s capabilities approach. The research is situated within the village of Mboza, the peri-urban locale of Ndumo, and the town of Jozini, oriented within the Makhathini region of the Pongola floodplain of Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In this context, perceptions of capabilities, rights, and food-security are seemingly based on normative views of rights aligning with South Africa‟s constitutional first and second generations rights. Additionally, it is noted that perceptions and aspirations are impacted by socio-historical and economic dynamics that have resulted in segregated places and constrained opportunities. Practically and ideologically speaking, the state historically played a role in shaping these dynamics. Perceptions are further influenced by normalised capitalist ideals relating to consumption, socio-economic mobility, and success. The research explores whether post-apartheid South Africa‟s incorporation of a rightsbased approach to development has influenced expectations and thus affected perspectives on the roles of: the state, communities, and individuals; in securing the right to food. In this manner, perceptions of food, a primary need necessary for a quality of life with dignity, may be extended to assess the degree of politicisation of basic needs by people in this context. South Africa has undergone a liberal democratic transition and embraces the ideology of human rights. However, the right to food, and the “expansion of the „capabilities‟ of persons to lead the kind of lives they value—and have reason to value”1 lays enmeshed within the rural development dilemma, the language of human rights and freedoms, and the developmental objectives of the South African State. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Educators are currently faced with numerous challenges, among them the prospect of working with OBE as well as dealing with growing class sizes and diminishing resources. Educators can no longer survive by using the text book, but are having to rely on a far greater range of resources both within themselves and in the world outside. In dealing with the injustices of the past, and in an attempt to move forward, it was recognised that a study exploring the impact of educators on the learners that they teach, was warranted - with particular emphasis on the facilitation of learning (as recommended within the new OBE system) . This particular study set out to discover whether there was a KwaZulu-Natal profile of the 'effective educator' as commonly agreed upon by learners and educators from different learning environments. In a partial replication of a study by Burns (1987), 237 participants (comprising educators and learners from a former 'DEC' and a former 'Model C' school) completed the 30-item Effective Educator Questionnaire which was then analysed in order to explore the patterns which might emerge. Responses were grouped into 11 areas of educator effectiveness and responses were compared between (i) former 'DEC' and former 'Model C' participants and (ii) educators and learners for each of the 30 questions which were grouped into the 11 areas as used by Burns in his original study. The study revealed similar findings to Burns' original study, and also found that there is a broad concept of the effective educator in the KwaZulu-Natal context - with the effective educator possessing both skills and qualities which facilitate learning. As a result of the findings, future research was recommended in the field in order to assist in educator selection programmes as well as action-research conducted by educators themselves in order to facilitate educational development within the country. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

A herpetofaunal study was undertaken at the 670 ha Owen Sitole College of Agriculture (OSCA) near Empangeni, Zululand, from 1986 to 1988. Collecting was carried out primarily opportunistically, throughout all seasons. A total of 28 amphibian taxa and 44 reptile taxa, comprising two chelonians, one crocodylid, 13 lizards and 28 snakes, were recorded. A further 11 amphibian and 42 reptile taxa may possibly occur. The majority of amphibians and reptiles display a tropical distribution, often with enormous ranges. Nineteen (68%) amphibian taxa have tropical or quasi-tropical (Poynton 1964) zoogeographical affinities and 33 (75%) reptile taxa have tropical wide ranging or tropical east coast littoral (Bruton and Haacke 1980) zoogeographical affinities. Only one amphibian taxon and four reptile taxa, all snakes, have Cape or temperate affinities. These taxa are marginal in the region, reaching their distributional limits in Maputaland. Niche segregation of amphibians occurs primarily according to water bodies. Vegetation per se does not appear to be important, with the majority of species occurring in a savanna environment; however, three species, Leptopelis natalensis, h. mossambicus and Arthroleptis wahlbergii, appear to be sylvicolous in habits and are restricted to riverine vegetation. The vast majority of taxa are summer breeders, whereas only one, Cacosternum nanum nanum, was recorded breeding in winter too. The syrnpatry of h. natalensis and Hyperolius semidiscus was confirmed in this study, and H. semidiscus and H. argus were shown to behave as good species with specifically distinct calls. Snakes are segregated according to size, mode of life, activity patterns and food. Certain species, such as Naja mossambica, have catholic diets whereas others, such as Duberria lutrix lutrix, Aparallactus capensis and Dasypeltis scabra, are specialists. The lizard fauna is differentiated according to diet, foraging strategies and habitat preferences, including substrate and vegetation. Amphibians are unselective feeders, consuming a variety of insects. Some, namely Xenopus laevis laevis and Pyxicephalus adspersus edulis, have catholic tastes and are even cannibalistic. Snakes and amphibians constitute the main prey items of snakes, whereas most lizards, with the exception of Varanus niloticus niloticus which is a generalist, feed exclusively on arthropods, especially insects. Schismaderma carens, Bufo gutturalis, Hemidactylus mabouia mabouia, Lygodactylus caoensis capensis, Mabuya striata striata, Lamprophis fuliginosus, Causus rhombeatus, Duberria lutrix lutrix and Naja mossambica are attracted to places of human habitation either for feeding or for shelter. Many amphibians benefit from artificial water bodies. No less than 19 taxa were recorded from the fish ponds, the majority of which bred there, possibly because the waters are more stable, permanent and relatively free of predators than natural water bodies. The Leguaan Tick Aponomma exornatum was recorded parasitizing adult Varanus niloticus niloticus, and the Snake Tick A. latum was found on N. mossambica and h. rhombeatus; A. latum, with an extensive subSaharan distribution, shows no predilection for any species of snake. Pentastomids and nematodes were found in a number of snakes (Atractaspis, Telescopus, Psammophis and Causus); the life cycle implications of these organisms are that mammals and snakes are intermediate hosts, though more ecological and experimental evidence is necessary. Python sebae natalens is and Kinixys natalensis, both Red Data Book - Reptile and Amphibian species, are particularly threatened, the first due to slaughter for traditional uses, the second due to agricultural activities and frequent fires. It is recommended that both these reptiles be afforded maximum protection in the 110 ha game park, which is regularly patrolled and which is subjected to infrequent fires. Generally, however, the herpetofauna has fared well at the hands of the local people, testimony to which is the high species diversity. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, 1990.

This study explores the narrated experiences of nine women heads of department (HoDs) in their roles as middle managers of secondary schools in South Africa. There is scant literature about women who hold such positions in schools. Too little is known about how they develop as middle managers and what capabilities they need to perform a management function. This study aims to push that peripheral attention given in education management literature to women in middle management roles in schools into sharp focus by concentrating on the women who operate in this much neglected tier of management. The study seeks to do this by understanding how women HoDs develop capabilities in a changing social context so that they become able to function as transformational middle managers and leaders at secondary schools. The key critical questions posed in the study are: * What are the narratives from women HoDs about how they developed their capabilities in a transforming and contested social context? * What are the capabilities that enable women middle managers to function as managers? * In what way do the capabilities of women middle managers enable them to function as transformational leaders? Located within the feminist paradigm, the study employs a participatory narrative methodology in two phases to generate data through qualitative participatory methods such as life-history interviews, letter-writing, journaling and participant observations. The first phase in the field focuses on eliciting accounts from nine women HODs about their lived experiences from early childhood to adulthood in order to understand how they developed their capabilities and how they came to take up management roles. Central to the development of capabilities are family relationships and educational experiences that influenced and equipped them for management. The second phase of data generation concerns observations and experiences of the women HoDs in their middle management roles. In this part of the study, role models, mentors and practices as middle managers come to the fore. To understand how women middle managers develop as managers in a transforming school context, and what capabilities enable the women middle managers to function in their role as transformational leaders, the study uses two theoretical lenses. The first lens is Nussbaum's and some educational scholars‟ expansion of Sen's capability approach; and the second lens is Bass and Avolio's and Leithwood et al's work on the behaviours and attributes of transformational leaders, which are used to separate out the capabilities that enable women to function as transformational middle managers. Five key findings emerge in this study: * The foundational management capabilities that enable women to function as transformational leaders in school management develop over an extended period of time from childhood into early career years. * Women identify mentors and/or role models who are afar from or in close proximity to them and who are located within their personal and/or professional domains as significant formative influences on them as middle managers in schools. While some women assert that their mentors and role models put up some barriers to their development as middle managers, these women employed their agency and resilience to offset any weak capability development. * Women middle managers' capability to function as transformational HODs is constituted in four attributes that emerge through the practice of behaviours and attributes that characterise transformational leadership. The management capabilities and the transformational leadership functionings are aligned on the basis of leadership attributes, namely, developing knowledge and skills; setting departmental directions; developing people in the department; and redesigning the department. * While women middle managers in schools have the internal capability to function as transformational leaders based on the foundational management capabilities they developed over many years, the external conditions within the school context may constrain them from functioning as transformational leaders. When external conditions support the development of women‟s management capabilities, then women appear to have a strong capability set; however when there are barriers to their capability development, then their capability set may be weak. * Neither the capability approach nor transformational leadership theory on their own is sufficient to understand how women develop capabilities to function as transformational leaders within the middle management tier of schools in the South African context. Based on these five findings, especially the fifth finding, the thesis of this study is that the affinity and complementariness between the development of foundational management capabilities and the behaviours and attributes of a transformational leader proposes a hybrid of the two theoretical lenses. This new approach, referred to as the Transformational Leadership Capabilities Approach, provides an explanation of how women middle managers develop capabilities appropriate for a management role and how they can function in that management role as transformational leaders. The Transformational Leadership Capabilities Approach unifies the capability approach and transformational leadership theory on the basis that management capabilities and transformational leadership behavioural components and dimensions are complementary. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The mapped area, measuring about 400m2, is situated along the southern margin of the Archaean Kaapvaal Craton south of Melmoth in KwaZulu-Natal and comprises greenstones and metasediments forming a narrow, linear E-W trending and dominantly northerly inclined belt flanked to the north and south by various granitoids and granitoid gneisses which have been differentiated for the first time in this study. This belt is here referred to as the ILANGWE GREENSTONE BELT. The lIangwe Belt rocks are grouped into the Umhlathuze Subgroup (a lower metavolcanic suite) and the Nkandla Subgroup (an upper metasedimentary suite). The former consists of: (a) the Sabiza Formation: a lower amphibolite association occurring along the southern margin of the greenstone belt; (b) the Matshansundu Formation: an eastern amphibolite-BIF association; (c) the Olwenjini Formation: an upper or northern amphibolite-banded chert-BIF association. whereas the latter is sub-divided into: (a) the Entembeni Formation: a distinctive phyllite-banded chert-BIF association occurring in the central and the eastern parts of the belt; (b) the Simbagwezi Formation: a phyllite-banded chert-amphibolite association occurring in the western part of the belt, south-east of Nkandla; (c) the Nomangci Formation: a dominantly quartzite and quartz schist formation occurring in the western part of the belt, south-east of Nkandla. The contacts between the six major tectonostratigraphic formations are tectonic. In the eastern sector of the lIangwe Belt, the lowermost metasedimentary formation, the Entembeni Formation, cuts across both the Sabiza and Matshansundu Formations (the lower formations of the Umhlathuze Subgroup) in a major deformed angular unconformity referred to as the Ndloziyana angular unconformity. In the central parts of the belt, the Entembeni Formation structurally overlies the Olwenjini Formation in what seems to be a major local unconformity (disconformity). In the western sector of the belt, the Simbagwezi Formation occurs as a structural wedge between the lower and upper formations of the Umhlathuze Subgroup. That is, it structurally overlies the Sabiza Formation and structurally underlies the Olwenjini Formation. The uppermost metasedimentary unit, the Nomangci Formation occurs as a complex series of finger-like wedges cutting and extending into the Simbagwezi Formation and in each case showing that the Nomangci Formation structurally underlies the Simbagwezi Formation. This structural repetition of lithological units is suggestive of normal dip-slip duplex structures. Palimpsest volcanic features, such as pillow structures and minor ocelli, indicate that many of the amphibolitic rocks represent metavolcanics, possibly transformed oceanic crust. This is also supported by limited major element geochemistry which suggests that the original rocks were ocean tholeiites. Evidence suggests that the talc-tremolite schists and the serpentinitic talc schists represent altered komatiites. The nature of the metasediments (represented by banded metacherts, quartzites and banded iron formations) and their similarity to those of the Barberton, Pietersburg and Nondweni greenstone complexes suggests that they were formed in relatively shallow water environments. The lIangwe magmatism is represented by different types of granitoids and granitoid gneisses and basic-ultrabasic intrusive bodies. Based on similar geochemical and mineralogical characteristics and on regional distribution, mutual associations and contact relationships, these granitoids and granitoid gneisses can be divided into three broad associations, viz: (a) The Amazula Gneiss - Nkwa/ini Mylonitic Gneiss - Nkwalini Quartzofeldspathic Flaser Gneiss Association: a migmatitic paragneiss and mylonitic to flaser gneiss association of older gneisses of Nondweni age occurring in several widely separated areas and intruded by younger granitoids. (b) The early post-Nondweni Granitoids comprising the Nkwalinye Tonalitic Gneiss (a distinctive grey gneiss intrusive into the greenstones and older gneisses) and the Nsengeni Granitoid Suite (an association of three granitoid units of batholithic proportions flanking the greenstone belt and intrusive into the greenstones, older gneisses and Nkwalinye Tonalitic Gneiss). (c) The late post-Nondweni Granitoids comprising the Impisi-Umgabhi Granitoid Suite, a batholithic microcrystic to megacrystic association of five granitoid phases/units occurring to the north and south of the greenstone belt and intrusive into the greenstones, older gneisses and early post-Nondweni granitoids. Limited major element geochemistry suggests that the granitoids and granitoid gneisses are of calc-alkaline origin and are of tonalitic, granodioritic, adamellitic and granitic composition. An igneous derivation from material located possibly at the lower crust or upper mantle is suggested. At least three major episodes of deformation (01, O2 and 03) have been recognized in the greenstones. During 01, a strong penetrative S1 tectonic foliation developed parallel to the So primary layering and bedding. This period was characterized by intense transpositional layering, recumbent and isoclinal intrafolial folding with associated shearing,thrusting and structural repetition of greenstone lithologies. These processes took place in an essentially horizontal, high strain tectonic regime. The first phase of deformation (OG1) in the migmatitic and mylonitic gneisses was also characterized by recumbent and isoclinal intrafolial folding and is remarkably similar to the 01deformational phase in the lIangwe greenstones. Structural features of the first phase of deformation suggest that it was dominated by formation of fold nappes and thrusts and was accompanied by prograde M1 medium-grade middle to upper amphibolite facies metamorphism. During D2 deformation, the subhorizontal D1 structures were refolded by new structures with steeply inclined axial planes. This resulted in the formation of superimposed Type 3 interference folding in the amphibolitic rocks and large-scale, E-W trending, doublyplunging periclinal folds in the metasediments. These periclinal folds have steeply inclined and overturned limbs and are characterized by narrow, closed elliptical outcrop patterns well-defined by extensive banded ironstones and metacherts. The second phase of deformation in the granitoids (DG 2) was characterized by steeply plunging and steeply inclined small-scale tight to isoclinal similar folds. Large-scale folds are not present in the granitoids. Evidence suggests that the second phase of deformation was a major compressional event which resulted in the large-scale upright, flattened flexural folds. It was accompanied by widespread regional greenschist metamorphism and the intrusion of the early postNondweni granitoids. The third phase of deformation produced steeply plunging small-scale folds on the limbs and axial planes of the pre-existing large-scale F2 folds and upright open folds in the granitoid terrain. This episode was characterized by the emplacement of the late postNondweni granitoids (along the D2 greenstone boundary faults) and is associated with two significant events of prograde M3 upper greenschist facies metamorphism and retrograde M3 lower greenschist facies metamorphism. Post-D3 deformation is characterized by late cross-cutting faults and the emplacement of younger basic - ultrabasic bodies. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, 1997.

The political, historical and legal changes, which have taken place in our country since 1994, have challenged men and women to learn anew, to readjust and embrace change. Men and women have been forced to reexamine gender relationships and to embrace a new culture of 'gender equality' , which is enshrined in the Constitution. However, the idea seems to have taken some men by surprise, especially those who are comfortable in their hetero-patriarchal masculinity, which dominates and oppresses women and children. For this reason, these men have not only shown disappointment at this apparent loss of privilege, but they are also becoming confused about their masculine identity. In their attempt to try and hold on to hetero-patriarchal culture and to keep women in their 'rightful' place, they appeal for the restoration of the by-gone traditional values of ubuntu, which are largely informed by the same hetero-patriarchal culture. Above all, in their frustration and anger, these men have resorted to violence in which they abuse and rape women and children, whom they apparently blame for their loss of patriarchal masculinity. However, despite the fact that not all men are heterosexual, men as a group have been blamed for the prevailing violence and the attitudes which foster it. My research conducted for the purpose of resolving gender-based violence and finding an alternative masculinity among black men in the Midlands, KwaZulu-Natal, demonstrates that, despite their collective socialisation in the patriarchal culture of aggression, abuse and violence, some gay men tend to choose different values and forms of masculinity that depart from the 'normal ' culture , by embracing values of love, nurturing, and care for others. Unfortunately, South African communities have not always been able to appreciate gay masculinities and their contribution, but instead, they have condemned and ostracised them as un-African and traitors to ubuntu values . Thus, in my analysis of the life-histories of a group of ten black heterosexual and gay men, I highlight the positive contribution of some marginalised gay men, who are forging what I believe is a more egalitarian masculinity, characterised by qualities opposed to the aggressive, dominant and potentially violent nature of patriarchal masculinities. In brief, I argue that, in striving for gender equality and an end to violence against women and children in South Africa , heterosexual men must be challenged to focus on themselves and learn new ways of behaviour from the kind of egalitarian masculinity constructed by the group of gay men studied. / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002. / Funding from the NRF.

On the first October, 1954 the Tomlinson Commission submitted its report to Parliament. Inter alia, it recommended that it should be the ultimate aim in the implementation of the policy of separate development of the races that as the Blacks become sufficiently advanced to manage their own affairs in their own areas, the administration of such affairs should be gradually transferred to the Blacks. In order to achieve this, it became necessary to employ Blacks in the areas to manage their own affairs where they might qualify. The Department of Development Aid and that of Education and Training therefore, collaborate with the national states to localize posts if need be or identify them for occupation by seconded officials in case they cannot be localized. The progressive localization of posts advances with self-government. There are constrains militating against the localization of posts. The main ones being the shortage of skilled manpower generally and of sufficiently qualified management personnel in the higher echelons in particular. Some problems are culture - based. For example, the inability of some Zulu civil servants to accept posts in strange and remote areas even if they are in senior positions. Since localization implies the gradual transfer of administrative decision-making it has transpired that KwaZulu civil servants are keen to localize whatever posts they possibly can localize especially in the Department of Education and Culture. The technical, medical and engineering fields are the most difficult to localize. Localization however, does not mean a mere replacement of one race with another. It means the transformation of a foreign system of administration into a local, indigenous one. The whole ethos, philosophy, system of values and procedures change from being legalistic and law enforcing. It assumes new duties of promoting, empowering and managing African development. The purpose of this thesis is to find out how far the policy of localization has been applied in KwaZulu especially in the Department of Education and Culture. It traces the fundamental assumptions and implications of localization in general, drawing on the literature available on other African countries and analyses the process in the KwaZulu civil service specifically. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1990.

Considered key landscape elements, ecotones play an important role in landscape ecology. In heavily fragmented, or heterogeneous landscapes, ecotones become a major, even dominant, feature. Yet, there are relatively few studies investigating communities of invertebrates associated with ecotones, especially across natural boundaries. Furthermore, most analyses of habitat loss do not consider the characteristics of the areas surrounding remaining habitat, the matrix. This thesis attempts to partially fill the gap. Afromontane forest-grassland ecotones are characteristically sharp (usually a few metres), are mainly fire-maintained, and have been in existence for, perhaps, millions of years. Therefore they provide a good opportunity to study ecotone, forest patch and grassland matrix characteristics together, and the associated species assemblages. In short, I investigated the diversity and distribution patterns of epigaeic invertebrates across ecotones between the natural and isolated patches of Afromontane forests and the surrounding natural grassland matrix, in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In particular, the following primary hypothesis was evaluated; do edge effects, in terms of elevated abundance and species richness, and in terms of abrupt, significant changes in environmental conditions, occur across near-natural ecotones. These edge effects quite often occur across anthropogenically-created habitat junctions, but it is not clear whether they do across natural ones. To test this hypothesis, the following secondary hypotheses were evaluated. Firstly, often a single invertebrate taxon is used for assessing changing landscape patterns. However, recent work has suggested that patterns and responses vary widely between taxa, and that management programmes based on the knowledge of a single taxon would not necessarily predict or safeguard that of others. Therefore, in chapter I, the hypothesis whether a single taxon could be used in biodiversity studies, or alternatively, whether it is better to select an array of taxa, was tested. Several invertebrate taxa were selected to investigate this. These included terrestrial amphipods, spiders, carabids, staphylinids and ants. Indeed, results showed that species diversities and assemblage-compositions of epigaeic spiders, carabids, staphylinids and ants were significantly different in different-sized Afromontane forest patches. Only carabids and staphylinids correlated positively with each other in terms of numbers of species. The other taxa showed only weak positive, or negative, correlations in their species richness. Results supported the multi-taxa approach in conservation studies, even among groups sharing a common habitat stratum. Secondly, organismal diversity usually increases at disturbed habitat edges. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the biological edge effect. This pattern, however, is not universal and a number of authors have shown evidence contradicting this hypothesis. In chapter II amphipods, ground beetles and ants were collected to test the biological edge effect hypothesis. In addition, a number of abiotic factors were measured across these forest-grassland boundaries in an attempt to relate the biotic with the abiotic. Little evidence was found to support the classical edge-effect hypothesis (elevated species richness at the ecotone). In fact, carabid abundance and species richness was high in forests, decreasing gradually through the ecotone to a low in grasslands. In contrast, ant species richness increased significantly from a low in forests, increasing gradually through the ecotone, to a high in grasslands. Certain species did, however, show a significant increase in abundance at the ecotone, such as Talistroides africana, a terrestrial amphipod, and Tetramorium avium, a seed-predatory ant. Afromontane forest-grassland ecotones are natural and are not the result of anthropogenic clear-cut fragmentation. They also lacked any great changes in micro-environmental conditions. I hypothesise that edge effects are of less importance at more naturally maintained habitat boundaries even if these boundaries are sharp. Thirdly, climatic variation has a major impact on invertebrate communities. The Afromontane landscape experiences hot and wet summers, and cool and dry winters. I hypothesised that invertebrate distribution patterns across an ecotone change from one season to the next (chapter III). For example, it is expected that certain winter-active species might disperse from one location along the gradient to another, perhaps to escape predators, or find winter-refugia. This would, in turn, change the pattern of distribution of the selected taxa across these ecotones. Surprisingly, the general pattern of distribution across these ecotones changed little. However, there were significant differences between summer, spring, winter and autumn catch, and species identities changed from one season to the next. For example, carabid abundance and species richness was higher in the forest, compared to in the grassland, while ants were species richer in the grassland, compared to in the forest. These patterns were consistent from one season to the next. Again, as was found in chapter II, T. africana was significantly more abundant at the ecotone, compared to either forest or grassland interiors, in all seasons throughout the year. To summarise, amphipods favoured the ecotone environment, carabids the forests and ants the grasslands, throughout the year. Finally, scientists have recently become aware of the importance of the matrix surrounding habitat patches, in the survival and occurrence of organisms in the habitat patch. I tested whether the quality of the matrix, as a function of human disturbance, has an influence on invertebrate occurrence and distribution patterns across Afromontane forest-grassland boundaries. Redgrass (Themeda triandra Forssk.) dominated Afromontane grasslands are, and have been experiencing varying degrees of anthropogenic disturbance. Consequently, ecotones vary from being very abrupt (heavy disturbance in the matrix) to gradual (little disturbance in the matrix), although still sharp compared to most ecotones elsewhere. Level of grassland disturbance influenced amphipod, carabid and ant assemblage-structure across Afromontane ecotones (chapter IV). Results support the hypothesis that the dynamics of remnant areas are influenced by factors arising in the surrounding landscape. In particular, carabid assemblage-composition changed highly significantly from undisturbed to disturbed sites (this taxon was mainly captured from forests). Furthermore, only a single carabid individual was captured from 8 to 128 m into the grassland and only 14 T. africana individuals were captured from 2 m inside the forest to 128 m into the grassland of the most disturbed site. Clearly, matrix quality influenced not only the patterns of occurrence of organisms in the grassland matrix, but also at the ecotones and in the forest patches. In conclusion, it is imperative to investigate a number of taxonomic groups in conservation ecology to give more reliable results, and thus conservation recommendations. Of course, not all taxa can be considered, and the selection of appropriate taxa still poses a problem, but a set of taxa that are considerably different biologically is a good start. Native Afromontane forest-grassland mosaics are in urgent need of conservation, as much of this habitat is subject to heavy anthropogenic disturbance such as human settlement, forestry, cattle grazing, agriculture, and frequent, out of season, fires. Unfortunately only 2% of this biome is protected in South Africa. Furthermore, matrix quality is important because it determines the survival rate of propagules moving between remnant patches of habitat, and therefore the success rate of such movements. Private land-owners own most of this grassland area in the Afromontane region, but no guidelines are available to them on how to protect this habitat. Throughout this thesis I emphasised the importance of protecting both native forest and the surrounding native grassland. A first initiative is simply to protect a zone of grassland around the forest patches, both in terms of less frequent burning regimes, and less, or no cattle grazing here. By doing so, a rich grassland ant fauna will be conserved, the grassland matrix quality will improve, and a rich carabid fauna, favouring predominantly Afromontane forest remnants, will be conserved. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

In South Africa, communal land still plays a significant role in the lives of many rural communities. While these communal lands have ostensibly been included within municipal frameworks, decisions about their utilisation still remains a practical reality for many livestock keepers. This research examined current herding and grazing practices, grazing areas being used in summer and winter, and factors taken into consideration by livestock keepers and herders when choosing grazing areas in the communal sub-ward of Okhombe, in the northern Drakensberg, KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of this research was to investigate the socio-cultural reasons of livestock keepers behind decision making about grazing areas. The primary research question pursued in the study was: How do livestock keepers select areas for livestock grazing in the sub-ward? Three sub-questions were developed to guide the research: What grazing and herding strategies are currently being used? Which areas are used for grazing, and in which season(s)? What are the considerations for choosing areas for livestock grazing? Data were collected from fifty-one (51) cattle keeping households in the sub-ward. Data were collected in five steps. The first two steps involved household and in-depth interviews using interview guides. The latter three steps involved a transect walks, one case study and focus group discussions to test and verify the data. The findings showed a wide range of livestock kept in Enhlanokhombe sub-ward. The majority (61%) of cattle keeping households had cattle and goats, which are important for ceremonial purposes. The primary reasons for keeping livestock involved agricultural, food and cultural purposes. The herding strategies found in the sub-ward involved family/relative member, hired herders and no herder, with the majority using family/relative members as herders. Three areas were used for livestock grazing were Maqoqa, Skidi and Mdlankomo. The key finding showed an increase in supplementary feeding, a decrease in traditional remedy usage and safety from theft as a new factor taken into consideration when selecting grazing land. Other factors involved presence of cropping fields, availability of grass and water, distance from home and family traditions. From these findings, one can conclude that there are clearly tensions between culture and changes in the society, culture and changes in economy; and livestock keepers' heritage and modern lifestyle. These tensions make livestock keepers' decision making processes harder. The grazing and herding strategies, and the choices of communal grazing areas are influenced by these changes. As a result, livestock keepers are shifting from their heritage and culture to being economic and adapting to modern world. The heritage and the clarity of gender roles are breaking down. Grazing and herding are, therefore, no longer simple and familiar, but complex and unfamiliar to livestock keepers. These findings have serious implications for extension, advisory and development approaches used when addressing livestock management among traditional livestock keepers. They imply that what is needed is a multi-dimensional and inclusive view of the livestock keepers' practices. Rather than relying on the long-held assumptions about livestock keepers, serious attention must be given to the tensions in communal livestock keeping and the complexity of communal grazing strategies. These must be deliberately and consciously used to inform interventions designed to improve communal grazing management. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.