This study has explored the motivational problem of speaking among language learners in an English secondary school. It set out from the premise that learners’ speaking is an important aspect of language learning but it is beset by a series of motivational difficulties, including lack of knowledge of oral progress, lack of awareness of how to improve, lack of confidence in speaking and an inability to say what they want to say. There has been little research into motivation in specific language skills among learners in UK schools despite evidence that speaking is associated with low levels of achievement. This study has sought to shed some light on this difficult aspect of language learning from the students’ perspectives. The study was conducted in a large, mixed comprehensive school in South East England in 2006-2007 and involved qualitative case studies of classes of students aged 11 to 14. Information was elicited by means of questionnaires, diaries and interviews. Performance data on students was also obtained from teachers (pseudonyms are used throughout when referring to the school, the teachers and the students). Although the study is small-scale, a series of key themes emerged from the data, which could help to inform developments in language teaching, research and policy. The findings of the study suggest that speaking is affected by a series of complex individual and social motivational variables that are not well understood but are, nonetheless, a source of tension for some learners.

The noncognitive features of pupils’ experience of school are important: they can affect academic attainment; they have an independent influence on outcomes in later life; and to the extent that they are related to pupils’ wellbeing they have intrinsic importance. I present four empirical papers on the emotional health, friendships, and behaviour of pupils in English secondary schools. The first two empirical papers present the results of a large pragmatic controlled trial of an intervention intended to promote pupils’ resilience and mental health. I estimate the intervention impact on symptoms of poor mental health, behaviour, absence from school, academic attainment, and popularity. I find small and short-lived impacts on depressive symptoms, absence, and popularity, and a small but more lasting impact on academic attainment. I find no impact on anxiety scores or behaviour. The third paper examines behaviour incidents at school. Poor behaviour is a major challenge to the effectiveness of schooling, and the data I have represents a substantial improvement over previous attempts to measure pupil behaviour. I find that demographic characteristics are strong predictors of the number of incidents per pupil, but they do not explain much of the overall variance in incidents. Incident rates per lesson vary strongly by context within the school, suggesting that schools could influence behaviour by modifying the environment. However, a pupil’s rank in terms of behaviour is remarkably persistent over different contexts and through time, suggesting that the tendency to misbehave is a stable noncognitive trait. The fourth paper looks in detail at the impact of time of day and day of the week on behaviour. I find that the strong and persistent day-of-the-week and time-of-day patterns I observe are not due to selective reporting or misreporting, and are not due to endogenous timetabling. Since schedule adjustment could be almost costless, it could be highly cost effective even if the impact on behaviour were much smaller than estimated in my observational data.

This thesis reports on an enquiry into the nature of teacher expertise which pays particular attention to its improvisatory nature. The study draws on three main areas of literature and theory: critical studies in improvisation; expertise and expert practice and organisation theory. These are used to present a model of teacher expertise that is derived from grounded theory. The data is taken from a series of comparative case studies of seven experienced teachers working in secondary schools in the South West of England and who have been identified as being expert within their school setting. Constant comparative methods of analysis have been used to draw out themes from the data. This has contributed to a grounded theory that identifies the nature of teacher expertise. The findings that arise from the data are that teachers' expertise is best expressed as continually evolving practice, a process as opposed to an end state. Advanced professional practice is best described as a 'teacher with expertises' and this is preferable to the term 'expert teacher'. The data shows that teacher expertise is fundamentally improvisatory and that this has a positive impact on the quality of teaching. The improvisation nature of teacher expertise is derived from four processes: the expression of tacit knowledge, relational and interactional practice, personalisation of the learning environment and self reflection leading to the continual adaptation of pedagogy. The resulting model of teacher expertise casts new light on how we understand advanced professional practice and this has implications for school leaders, teachers, researchers and those with responsibility for the initial training and the continuing professional development of teachers.

This research explored the professional situation of teacher educators in the Lifelong Learning Sector (LLS), and how a deeper understanding of their professional situation could enhance their future support, professional development and working context. The research followed a mixed methods methodology, and six research phases took place including focus groups, a literature review, and an evaluation of a CPD programme. The largest online survey of this particular group to date was also carried out and 161 teacher educators participated in that survey. The results of the research provided rich insights into their values, experiences, particularly challenging working context and support needs. The knowledge resulting from the research included recognition of the multiplicity and complexity of the role and how LLS teacher educators manage it. The multiplicity and complexity was characterised as the ‘more than a teacher’ quality, and teacher education professionals as ‘triple professionals’ or ‘multiple professionals’. The research developed a new model of professionalism, the ‘connected professional’, and embedded this in the theoretical framework for teacher education entitled ‘The Teacher Education Professional as Connecting Professional (TEPACP)’ framework. Recommendations arising from the findings include adopting the model of the Connected Professional and TEPACP theoretical framework proposed by the evidence from the research together with action to assist LLS Teacher Educators to progress towards a more confident professional identity. The research significantly extends the understanding of the characteristics and beliefs of this under-researched professional community.

Recent research has suggested that ten percent of school aged children and young people within the UK experience a clinically diagnosable mental health problem (Green et al., 2005). Schools, teachers and educational psychology services are increasingly required to help with the prevention, early recognition and management of mental health difficulties. In particular, teachers have been identified as important supporters of pupil mental health needs as tier one mental health workers and providers of universal mental health services (DfCSF & DH, 2008; Ofsted, 2005). However, a comprehensive review of both government and academic literature indicated that the feasibility of this expectation is largely unexplored, particularly within the UK context. Therefore, this thesis sought to investigate the perspectives of mainstream secondary school teachers regarding pupil mental health needs in order to develop a predictive model of their willingness. The rationale for focusing on willingness was that psychological theory indicates that willingness is an important determinant of actual behaviour (e.g. Ajzen, 2005). A model was developed based upon the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), but which included other relevant elements identified within the literature. The model was tested using a questionnaire developed for the purpose of the study, which was found to have both internal reliability and validity. Teachers from 14 schools within 9 South Wales LEAs completed the questionnaire (n=217). Regression analysis provided support for the proposed model, indicating that teacher age, level of personal experience and attitude towards the role were particularly strong predictors of teacher willingness. This research has many implications in terms of developing the capacity of schools to support the mental health needs of their pupils, for example, in providing an understanding of some of the social-cognitive processes which may influence teacher willingness. Additionally, the research has identified an important role for educational psychologists in terms of supporting schools to develop teacher willingness, for example, through tailored training.

This study seeks to explore the problems of genetics learning and to identify possible ways forward. The work was carried out at junior high school level in Taiwan. Genetics is often thought of as a subject or a topic in biology that is difficult to learn and understand, especially for novices. A review of literature on learning difficulties in genetics is provided to explore the nature of the difficulties, with likely explanations for the difficulties observed. Undoubtedly, many would acknowledge that genetics is an important subject to learn in these days and age where its applications are ubiquitous and even the cause of many debates. However, due to the nature of the subject matter and the way learning processes occur and, possibly, the way it is being taught, the understanding of genetics ideas of the majority of students is thought to be very poor and full of confusions and alternative views. Thus, the overall aim of this study is to explore learning difficulties and problems in genetics and then to develop and test ways by which the situation might be improved. The research for this thesis was carried out in three stages. In the first stage, the adolescent learners’ preconceptions about genetics were explored before they move to the formal course. The result indicated that the essential foundational concepts, such as structure and function of cells and its organelles, cell divisions (mitosis and meiosis), reproduction, and basic mathematical requirements and the concept of probability, are generally vague and misconceptions are widespread. In the second stage, factors that might affect the learning of genetics for adolescent learners were investigated. The factors were prior knowledge related to genetics and the effects of the limitation of learners’ psychological characteristics (namely, perceptual fields or the degree of field dependence and the working memory space). Results showed that students’ performance in genetics examination revealed a significant correlation with their prior knowledge, the working memory capacity and the degree of field dependence. Based on the findings from the first and second stage of the research, a set of teaching material of genetics course for the first year of junior high school students was developed in the third stage. The teaching material was deliberately constructed not only to minimise demands on the working memory, but also to encourage attitude development. The performance of students was found to be significantly better than for those who had been taught by the traditional approaches. Numerous comparisons of attitudes between the two groups revealed that attitudes of social awareness as well as attitudes towards aspects of the learning processes involved were more positive for those who had used the new materials It should be pointed out that all conclusions derived from this study must be treated tentatively. Inevitably, any new approach will have a novelty factor which may enhance performance. Nonetheless, the evidence taken together does support the hypothesis that learning arranged in line with information processing insights is more effective. In addition, the strategies used were designed in line with understandings of the ways attitudes develop and the effectiveness of these approaches has been demonstrated. Overall, the study has highlighted several problems and, on the basis of the evidence obtained, suggests possible ways forward for a better approach to genetics learning.

This thesis is primarily a philosophical exploration of emotions. From a feminist, liberal perspective, I focus on the cultivation of morally appropriate emotions, particularly compassion, in education. My central claim is that emotions are essential elements of human intelligence and wellbeing. They are complex responses to events of significance to us and, because emotions play a central role in our lives, they help to define who we are and why we are as we are; they are expressions of our values and what we value. Emotions can motivate us to action, and so we need, if we want just institutions, to ensure that those actions are ethical and proportionate. On the view that emotions can be rational, and that they result from eudaimonistic judgements, if we want a society of healthy human beings who have concern for others, who know how to treat others fairly and sensitively, how to take action when things go wrong, then we need to attend, I argue here, to emotional health in education. We should aim to habituate the emotional capacities of all individuals as an enduring resource of good character. At issue, is how to educate young people to have healthy emotions that are ethical, proportionate, discerning and deliberative, that have ethical action as their goals, and which do not negatively discriminate on the basis of gender. In the development of emotional wellbeing and moral character, compassion is an emotion that merits particular attention. Such is the potential ethical power of this emotion, that I propose compassion to be the arch-guardian of the moral domain and, accordingly, a prerequisite for the cultivation of moral sentiment and respect for human dignity. A consideration of emotions will raise questions about who should feel, how we should feel, when, and to what extent, emotions such as compassion, sympathy or anger in acceptable and appropriate ways. I argue, too, that we should attend to the how and why of interpreting these emotions. Whilst a number of analyses reveal how powerful emotional interpretations are in stigmatising, labeling or stereotyping men and women, rarely, if ever, are questions raised in education about the assumptions on which gendered emotions rest. I respond here by proposing that if education is to serve a role in the cultivation of morally appropriate emotions, then we must question, and should no longer accept, gendered emotions, that is emotions that belong to, or are more ‘natural’ for one sex than another. Acknowledging the importance of care for wellbeing, I question the claims of some care ethicists who would have us believe that care does not require moral theory and that it is not an issue of justice. I assert, to the contrary, that unless an ethics of care rests on sound moral and conceptual constructs, it will perpetuate a bifurcation of emotion and reason whilst sustaining stereotypically gendered emotions. In order to illuminate my argument for the cultivation of de-gendered, just emotions, I draw upon empirical research on the effects of deformed emotional attitudes towards women and children which seriously impede their wellbeing and functioning. I draw, too, on novels, both for the exemplification of my arguments and as a vehicle which, creatively and sensitively used, can help us to shape our imaginative and empathic capacities to take into the folds of our consciousness people who are both similar to and remote and different from us. I am accompanied throughout the thesis by a fictional pupil ‘Nancy’ with and through whom I exculpate complex theoretical and philosophical issues. The thesis re-affirms the importance of cultivating morally appropriate de-gendered emotions, particularly compassion, and concludes with the proposal that we should incorporate and embed an understanding of the emotions in the education curricula, for both pupils and those who teach them. I propose, too, that emotions might be regarded as an architectonic capability anchoring and influencing all other human capabilities.

This research study aims to explore the process of educational change management in Pakistan through the experiences and views of institution heads and teachers to look at the reality of an externally mandated reform at the school level. Beyond contextualising the process of educational change at the school level within the Pakistani education system, the study aims to contextualise this process in the global perspective by delineating an emergent model of educational change management for Pakistani education system. A change initiative to reform the national curriculum and assessment system for public examinations was investigated to provide the participants of the study a point of reference to express their opinions and to reflect upon and describe their experiences. This particular change initiative was part of a comprehensive reform programme called Education Sector Reform (ESR) programme initiated in 2002. To define the selection of institutions and the sample of teachers within those institutions, the curriculum and assessment system change at Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC) level in the subject areas of English, Urdu and Pakistan Studies was focused in the institutions affiliated with the examination board of Federal Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (FBISE). Beyond affiliation with FBISE, the selection of twenty institutions was made in order to balance a number of factors as the ownership, attraction for admissions, gender representation and administrative structures. The data collection was done at three stages through three research tools. At the first stage, the institution heads of the selected institutions were included in the research through semi-structured interviews. At the second stage an exploratory questionnaire, which was based on the interview data and the related literature, was given to twenty teachers in ten of the institutions included in the study. The data from this exploratory questionnaire was used to develop a structured questionnaire for the third phase of the research, which was given to 124 teachers in the twenty institutions included in the study. The sample was balanced for the subject areas and the length of teaching experience of the participants. The analysis of data from both institution heads and teachers has converged on three overarching themes of student learning and assessment, issues related to the role of teachers in the process of change and the management of the reform process. In summary, participating institution heads and teachers are positive about the need and purpose of the reform; they also consider it good for student learning and attainment but have reservations about the top down approach in change management and poor resourcing. They demand well-resourced institutions and teachers, capacity building for implementers in the institutions and their inclusion in the process of the reform planning. They suggest improved communication and coordination for effective implementation of the reform along with comprehensive, inclusive, consistent and research based approach in the policymaking, planning and implementation strategy of the reform, which needs to be incremental in nature. Based on the data, especially the suggestions of the participants, an emergent model for educational change management in Pakistan has been outlined with strategic management at the core built around incremental, consistent, research based, inclusive and comprehensive, approaches. This model extends into the role of teachers: who are resourced with information, guidance, support, materials, facilities and funds, who are satisfied with the change management process and their professional status in the system and working conditions, and who are ready for the change through acceptance of the change (especially with reference to its effect on student learning), participation in the whole change process and training. This emergent model has been situated in the existing research literature to highlight the similarities as well as the distinctive features of the Pakistani context.

In Scotland, as in many countries, the relationship between research, policy and practice has been complicated, not least because of the multiple stakeholders involved in the change process. This interpretive study focuses on Assessment is for Learning (AifL), a centrally-funded development programme (2002-2008) established to address concerns raised in reviews of assessment practice and intended to create a coherent system of assessment for pupils aged 3-14 in Scottish schools. AifL’s central aspiration was to learn from previous experience of curriculum and assessment development and develop evidence-based national policy and practice in assessment which met the needs of all stakeholders. The study explores the policy messages communicated, and considers how policy communities can influence the relationship between national policy and practice in assessment. The design of the AifL programme was influenced by research on both assessment and transformational change. A crucial feature of the change process was the opportunity it provided for local contextualisation through the engagement of local education authorities, a group perceived as particularly important in ensuring the long term sustainability of the programme. AifL co-ordinators were appointed to take forward this important role in all 32 local authorities in Scotland but, although they shared a title, background experience and the nature of their appointment meant that this was not a homogenous group. Through analysis of interviews with AifL co-ordinators in seven Scottish local authorities, the study sought to explore the process of change and, in particular, what policy imperatives such as 'local contextualisation' actually mean in practice. It considered co-ordinators’ background experience, their perception of their role and the direction of assessment development within their local authority. The study has been conducted from an insider standpoint and the small-scale nature of the study allowed exploration of contextualization through narratives revealing individual perspectives. It raised several issues for, while the study had intended to explore approaches to building capacity and discern the impact of difference on national policy, the narratives themselves altered its direction. What emerged from this further illustrates the complexity of change for, although national assessment policy reinforced AifL, the study revealed that prevailing concerns with accountability had compromised its realisation. Whilst AifL had recognised that changing assessment practice required reform of the system as a whole, local contextualisation focused on formative assessment in classrooms to the comparative neglect of other functions of assessment. Other policy legislation had led to systems and structures for accountability in local authorities which placed persistent demands on teachers, so that identified tensions in assessment remained largely unresolved. To address conflicts between what are currently two separate streams of activity and improve the validity of the school evaluation process, assessment literacy generally and alignment of support and improvement roles specifically require further development. The study indicated that national reform initiatives dependent on local contextualisation must not only appreciate the multiple perspectives of stakeholders as AifL attempted to do, but also seek to expose and address competing priorities, underlying hierarchies and the influence of individuals with specific agendas. Policy messages should be clear and unambiguous taking account of relevant research findings and, crucially, must be reinforced in behaviours which reflect discourse and text. These conclusions may have implications for Curriculum for Excellence, a major reform of the Scottish curriculum. Much can be learned from what AifL managed to achieve - and more from what has been learned from the experience.

Black-British young people are, on average, at least four times more likely to be excluded from school and experience significantly lower levels of academic attainment than their demographically matched white counterparts. This research adopts a social constructionist understanding of resilience to explore how ten Black-British students in an urban secondary school cope within their school and community. It is hoped that the case study of their resiliency adaptations will inform primary and secondary prevention. The interview transcripts were analysed using Grounded Theory methods (Charmaz, 2006). This involved the continuous analysis and comparison of data. This process produced 81 focused codes and 19 memos. These were conceptualised into three categories, which formed ‘Hope Theory.’ This theory suggests that having educational and vocational aspirations are important in shaping how all young people, not just those of black British cultural heritage, engage in school and in moderating the effects of communities that are perceived as unstable and threatening. Key to hoped-for goals is the ability to identify viable pathways towards their completion and a sufficient sense of personal agency or self-efficacy to attempt them. Comparisons were drawn between Hope Theory and the extant literature, highlighting the Working Alliance as a tool that could help EPs and teachers build social and physical ecologies that support hope and resilience in young people.