English is taught as a compulsory subject in general education and some higher education institutions in Sudan. Students are totally dependent on the five to six hours per week of language input provided through formal classroom instruction. Besides limited exposure to the language, there are other factors confounding the teaching and learning of English such as large classes, lack of books, untrained teachers, examination _oriented teaching and learning, and teaching grammarians' grammar. Such factors have contributed to the decline of standards in English to the extent that the pass mark in English has been reduced to 30 percent in the secondary school certificate examination. The students' interlanguage exhibits features indicating heavy reliance on literal translation from Arabic. At least 50% of their errors could be attributed to this interlinguistic transfer, a strategy which is frequently employed due to the lack of the requisite knowledge of the target language. Of all the detrimental factors, the teaching of grammar seems to be the one that is most directly related to the deterioration of the standard in English. It usually takes the form of giving rules, facts and explanations couched in metalinguistic terms, which is at variance with the learners' hypotheses formation process. Reciting rules and facts about the language is the only one thing that untrained teachers can do. Trained teachers also resort to giving rules and facts due to the fact that the situation in the schools and universities is not conducive to developing the language as a skill. Based on the fact that the effectiveness of foreign language teaching in general and the teaching of grammar in particular is greatly reduced when the focus is on giving rules and complicated grammatical analysis, it is the purpose of this study to explore the possibility that the teaching of grammar could profitably be based on the findings of recent studies on interlanguage and learning strategies. The study focusses on the interlinguistic transfer strategy through translation errors in an attempt to arrive at a learnercentred technique of teaching grammar. Based on the analysis of errors, providing students with simple contrastive comparisons between the native and the target language was articipated to be more effective than giving them abstract rules and metalinguistic explanations. The study provides empirical data verifying the effectiveness of simple interlinguistic comparisons in minimizing translation errors. An experiment was conducted in eight secondary schools and the University of Gezira in Wad Medani, Sudan. A total of 714 male and female Arabicspeaking students were pretested, matched and divided into two equal groups in each school. Based on the results of error analysis, two lessons, one normal and one experimental, were developed to teach the relative clauses in English. The normal lesson followed the traditional format of examples, rules and explanations couched in metalinguistic terms. The experimental lesson included terminology-free comparisons of relative clauses in English and Arabic. The two groups were taught by the same teacher in each school and the university. The same pretest was administered as a post-test. The matched group t test was used to compare the means of the active object relative clauses correctly produced by the two groups in each school. A significant difference was observed between the two groups. The experimental group performed better than the normal group. The t values were 6.387 (df=83), 3.240 (df=54), 1.969 (df=29), 1.758 (df=28), 3.043 (df=41), 4.586 (df=35), 2.651 (df=23), 3.030 (df=14), and 3.747 (df=41). The probability that the difference was due to chance was less than 5% in all cases. The findings supported the hypothesis that the error-based interlinguistic comparisons techniques would be more efficient than the currently used traditional technique in minimizing negative transfer errors. The implications of the findings on the teaching of grammar, error correction, materials development and teacher training are discussed together with the limitations of the study and the need for further research to confirm the findings before they can be generalized.

The use of the Internet as a medium for education has grown exponentially since the mid-1990s. Institutions of higher education are increasingly offering online access to distance education programmes, especially at postgraduate level. Some see e-learning as offering solutions to many problems traditionally associated with distance education. Research into e-learning at a distance has largely focussed on the effectiveness of differing technologies for the delivery of online courses, the emphasis being upon the technology itself, with few studies examining the student experience of this new phenomenon. It is therefore argued that a gap exists, as the views of distance e-learners at postgraduate level have seldom been paid attention, with their specific and individual needs failing to be addressed. This study aims to rectify this gap by examining postgraduates' experiences of e-learning at a distance. The purpose of the study is to inform the future development of elearning at postgraduate level and help determine how higher education can best support this rapidly expanding group of learners. The research presents a qualitative case study of a group of students studying modules from the University of Salford's MSc/Postgraduate Diploma in Occupational Safety and Health in a virtual learning environment called GOLDPhase, which was specifically designed and developed to facilitate the study. Issues related to the students' heightened awareness of their peers, their sensitivity to tutor feedback, and the learning strategies they adopted are identified and discussed. The findings show that e-learning engendered a range of barriers and enhancements for this group of distance learners. The enhancements were largely computer based and barriers were mostly sociological. The findings have implications for both online teaching and online learning strategies. As distance e-learning is in its infancy the study will increase overall understanding in this area and contribute to the growing body of knowledge.

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This research focuses on an analysis of the changes in the Libyan Higher Education Institutions (LHEIs) management system. This is an important subject since the Libyan General People's Committee for Higher Education (LGPC) has begun to introduce changes for improving and enhancing the management of Libyan Universities (LUs) and the movement towards sustainable development. This study investigates and examines new management changes by considering different factors including university financing, quality and institutional performance and the relationship between fields of organisational change and implementation process. It may be interpreted within a strategic framework, socio-cultural model and institutional changes. Does this mean a move from idealism to a realistic perspective in relation to the problems and issues of universities in Libya? The study also considers the conditions and barriers involved in implementing the new changes. LHEIs have to re-examine their existing structures and practices in order to meet the needs of the information age. This requires major changes and transformation. A main concern that hinders the management of change process is the lack of useful models and success cases to lead the way. The present research proposes to identify the most successful strategies adopted at Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and universities in order to characterize the change processes adopted across the universities. In light of these strategies, another important objective of this research is to develop a model for implementing management change into HEIs and universities. The research is also expected to extend the researcher's understanding about the extent of success of the organisational development and change policies in improving performance. This study is designed to fill the gap in knowledge about models appropriate to the management of change in higher education. Each model sheds light on different aspects of organisational life and has a distinct set of hypotheses about why change occurs, how the process grows, when change occurs and how long it takes and the results of change. The models will then be adapted to the specific cultural, political and social aspects of LHEIs. The research questions were answered using multiple data sets showing percentages which explained the benefits of comprehensive assessments of change and its mechanisms. The results will be used to explore how the combinations of quantitative interpretation techniques may be used to support LHEIs in enhancing their quality in an effective way while harmonizing with LUs, external standards and requirements of the information age. Research has shown that higher education governance needs to find a clear mechanism for the process of evaluating the course of HEIs and everything related to the role of a university, identifying its strengths and weaknesses and identifying opportunities for development, both at the university level and in higher education management and policy-making to enhance the effectiveness of this vital sector in various areas. Extrapolating from barriers of change approaches which have recently arisen, this study sheds light on the process of change; the main component of this are managers who have a range of awareness and understanding of change in shaping their trends and attitudes towards it. This has an important impact in organisation leadership to implementing change. The implementation of a strategic change model is based on the assessment to keep up with the conversion used in the statistical analysis and deep understanding and mutual commitment to the process of change between the institution and staff. The most important factors for success in building useful understanding of the change process lies in the preparation process and the knowledge and understanding of the customer in recognising the importance of avoiding ambiguity in the steps of change, predicting potential problems, showing different ways of working for the customer, and developing a cooperative relationship with stakeholders. Extrapolation of findings suggests that lack of strategy or a clear action plan to develop and improve the quality of institutional performance leads to a higher education sector with the slow pace of interaction with the desired societal goals. There is also difficulty in keeping pace with the management of modern university systems and recent developments in the fields of science and technology. Therefore, the main objective of higher education management is to develop a flexible action plan to improve/implement and manage the change process using an effective strategy, to avoid any possible resistance to the process of change and to ensure the active and wide participation by the staff in general; a plan of action aims to: §Contribute to the realization of the vision and a message of higher education, deepen basic values, and implement strategy plans. §Develop a model for the change that includes the first steps of implementing change. §Stimulating all personnel of institutions of higher education to upgrade their performance, including a positive impact in the development of institutional performance.

This thesis addresses the question of how veterinary students learn to cope with uncertainty in professional practice. There is currently a lack of clarity in discussion of what constitutes effective coping with uncertainty in veterinary practice and indeed how this might be taught or assessed as part of the veterinary education process. This is despite wide recognition that managing uncertainty is central to practice in the health professions, reflected in the fact that the ability to cope with uncertainty is considered a “day one competency” for veterinary surgeons. This research adopted both extensive and intensive perspectives to address the central research question. Orienting concepts were developed form the literature on workplace learning, approaches to clinical uncertainty and individual differences in tolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity. The extensive perspective used a survey study to describe tolerance of ambiguity among veterinary students at a UK veterinary school. On average, ambiguity tolerance did not change during the classroom based part of veterinary training. Individual trajectories were often more erratic and some students moved between the highest and lowest categories during the course of training. Previous education and status as a mature student were both associated with greater tolerance of ambiguity, suggesting that educational and life experiences can produce changes in this disposition. The intensive perspective comprised a qualitative case study, using clinical case discussion recordings and semi-structured interviews to develop an understanding of the mechanisms which influence learning to cope with uncertainty in the context of an international elective placement. Using the language of situated learning theory, learning to cope with uncertainty was described as legitimate peripheral participation in the uncertainty work of a community of practice. Uncertainty work is a novel concept used to describe navigating ambiguity, complexity and risk in professional practice . Using this theoretical framework to draw together findings from both intensive and extensive perspectives suggested the central role of gaining access to uncertainty work in professional learning. Generative mechanisms have been proposed to explain the empirical findings. Access to uncertainty work was negotiated between students and staff in the context of clinical and educational practice. Trust was central to gaining access to uncertainty work, and this was reflected in increasing clinical responsibility. Ambiguity tolerance was described in this context as a disposition of individuals which can influence their engagement with and access to uncertainty work. Through an exploration of the significance of these mechanisms in the context of Veterinary education, implications for curriculum and policy have been highlighted. Although the use of measures of ambiguity tolerance in selection are considered problematic, there can be clear scope to support students in accessing uncertainty work and to highlight encounters with uncertainty work as integral to the professional role, providing opportunities to promote personal and professional development through reflective practice.

The Web has changed the face of scientific communication; and the Semantic Web promises new ways of adding value to research material by making it more accessible to automatic discovery, linking, and analysis. Institutional repositories contain a wealth of information which could benefit from the application of this technology. In this thesis I describe the problems inherent in the informality of traditional repository metadata, and propose a data model based on the Semantic Web which will support more efficient use of this data, with the aim of streamlining scientific communication and promoting efficient use of institutional research output.

Many learners of English as a second or foreign language at university, especially preparatory year students, in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere struggle to achieve a satisfactory level of English language writing. Writing in English with control of accurate mechanics of writing and vocabulary and syntax, logical flow of ideas and clear structure of organisation and coherence is a condition for students’ academic success and vital for effective written communication. Despite its importance, the majority of such learners fail to meet these requirements and they have difficulties in composing texts with a logical sequence of ideas and persuasive content (Roberts and Cimasko, 2008). Part of this problem is said to occur because many writing instructors still follow traditional teaching methodologies such as the grammar-translation method and use of repetitive exercises. Such practices may seem demotivating to many learners, particularly the young generation of learner writers. However, there are a number emerging technologies such as social networking tools (e.g. wikis), which if included in normal classes can help and are therefore relevant. Many such tools utilise writing and written messages. There is now a mismatch between what learners do in the traditional class and what they actually spend most of their time on outside class (web 2.0 technologies). A compromise between two environments: formal (in class) and informal (outside class) could offer solutions. The current study aimed to fill a gap in the research by addressing the specific problems related to learning writing. It will suggest that a process-oriented wiki-mediated collaborative writing (PWMCW) approach can assist learners in practising writing in second/foreign language. The research also aimed to provide a formal learning setting for writing outside the classroom, to train the ESL/EFL learner writers to target a new audience other than their instructor. In this way, they will learn to develop their abilities to share knowledge and to respond to peers and their own feedback. The study addressed three main questions (eight sub-questions): to explore how the students perceive the PWMCW, how the learner writers process it and how it impacts on their collaborative and individual texts. The study takes a quasi-experimental case study design (one single pre-and-post-experimental group) in order to contribute to the continuity of development of learner writers regardless of place-related restrictions (Green et al., 2011). It was carried out with a mixed-research design. The quantitative analysis provided robust statistical operations to identify the significance level for certain issues, e.g. e feedback, authentic tasks and peers interaction. The qualitative analysis showed how collaborative planning and revision are achieved during the PWMCW. The data were collected from pre-and-post questionnaires, initial-and-follow-up focus groups, delayed interviews, wiki-based contributions and samples for written texts. A purposive sampling was applied and a group of university level, preparatory year, language learners were chosen in one of the universities in Saudi Arabia. This procedure is held to ensure that writing can be socially processed in an online learning environment. The findings revealed significant and insignificant changes in the perceptions of the learners along with emerging specific themes which contributed to understanding the topic of the PWMCW. The findings also explored the nature of how the collaborative writers worked together to establish a good start for better written texts, by emphasising collaborative planning and collaborative revision. Finally, the findings showed the impact of the PWMCW on the texts produced collaboratively (that used collaborative planning and collaborative revision) and individually (those texts produced by the individual learners before and after the course).

This study examines subject teachers’ orientations and implementation of English as a medium of instruction in Chinese universities, against a background of the internationalisation of higher education. The study also explores the way in which English as a medium of instruction policies are actualized in teaching practices. The study is informed by English as a lingua franca perspective on English communication, language policy theory and English as a lingua franca in academic settings. This study draws on data retrieved through questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations. 106 questionnaires were collected, 14 interviews were conducted and 15 hours of classroom observations were analysed. The findings of the study suggest the majority of teachers favour English as a medium of instruction, while at the same time pointing out concerns regarding the teaching quality, and ambivalent language policy, as well as some perceptions towards attachment to native English ideology. The participants have ambivalent orientations towards English use; on the one hand, exhibited native-like competency was still considered as important for many teachers. On the other hand, the responses of the participants revealed their belief in the need to communicate effectively rather than aiming at native speaker competency in practice. In addition, both questionnaire and interview findings reveal that the English language policy in China is still based on native speaker English, but that teachers and students are using ELF in practice. The classroom observations suggest that some teachers adopted ELF orientated approach in their practices. The data analysis confirmed the existence of a gap between policy as stated and the implementation of the policy. The findings of this study can contribute to ELF, EMI, and language policy research. It is argued that the ELF concept should expand to include interlocutors from the same language cultural background. It is suggested that English policy and ELT in China should take account of the students’ future needs and the global use of English. Thus, the traditional native-normative approach to English language should be questioned. The findings also raise questions as to how English as a medium of instruction in China could be implemented effectively.

As a global language, English has spread to the extent that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers. In the last few decades, a body of research literature has emerged demonstrating the decreasing global relevance of native English speakers, and calling for a re-evaluation of English Language Teaching (ELT) practices, in order to better prepare students for using English as a global lingua franca. However, students’ needs and attitudes towards English and ELT must be fully investigated before curriculum changes can be suggested. Many attitude studies conclude that students favour native varieties of English. However, such research often uses single research methods and very few relate attitude studies to ELT. Further research is required regarding students’ attitudes towards English, the factors influencing these attitudes and how they relate to ELT. Moreover, few studies have investigated these proposals in any depth or explored the impact of course instruction in the global uses of English on students’ attitudes. This thesis is an investigation of Japanese university students’ attitudes towards English and English teachers in relation to the use of English as a lingua franca (ELF). In order to widen the scope of understanding, this research employed a mixture of quantitative and qualitative measures to obtain data about the participants and their attitudes. Thus, questionnaires, interviews and focus groups were used. Following the introduction, chapter two and three provide a literature review. Chapter four outlines the methodology, and the results are presented in chapters five, six and seven. Chapter eight presents a discussion of the results and the implications of this study for teaching English are discussed in chapter nine. The findings suggest that English is seen as a language belonging to native English speakers and those students want to learn native English. However, the results highlighted that a number of factors influence students’ attitudes. The findings also demonstrated that the study of Global Englishes influenced students in a number of ways, including their motivation for learning English, attitudes towards varieties of English and attitudes towards English teachers. It encouraged them to question notions of ‘standard English’, was helpful for future ELF communication and raised their confidence as English speakers. In sum, the findings of this study provide an empirical basis for a re-evaluation of ELT and suggest that Global Englishes Language Teaching is something that should be further investigated.

This research project examines the role of student services in universities in Central and Eastern Europe at a time of rapid transformation of the higher education sector, following from the collapse of the socialist period in 1989 and the implementation of the Bologna process after 1999. Conducted in the period 2004- 2006, the research process aimed to identify the major factors of institutional change, and to what extent are students, and services for students, considered a driving force for organisational restructuring. Based upon a comparative qualitative study of four public universities in Hungary, Romania, Croatia and Serbia, this project found ample evidence of institutional change and introspection, innovation, achievement, as well as awareness and critical analysis of weaknesses. However, the main expectation to find students as active agents in institutional change and in the improvement of the old and the provision of new services for students was not supported by the findings in this study. Although the four universities in this project share the characteristics of an allencompassing change process, students, and services for students, still play a marginal part in determining institutional priorities and in influencing the service provision and culture. Having anticipated the lack of awareness of the role of student services in organisational management, this project examines the reasons for this from a historical perspective, using a comparative approach to development trends in the United States, continental Europe, and Central and Eastern Europe. It further suggests a model of integrated student services, based upon the actual experience of the Central European University, but defined and analysed against the context of the region. This research project coincides with a growing awareness in public policy debates in continental Europe of the importance of institutional student support services. As the first study of institutional practices with regard to student services in Central and Eastern Europe, it anticipates the reform in this area and the integration of student services as part of the university core.