The nuclear power sector has a history of challenges with its relative competitiveness against other forms of electricity generation. The availability of low cost low natural gas, the Fukushima accident, and the cancellation of the AP1000 V.C. Summer project has caused a considerable role in ending the short lived “Nuclear Renaissance.” Historically, the nuclear industry has focused on direct cost reduction through construction, increasing installed capacity, and improving efficiencies to capacity factors in the 1990s and 2000s as ways to maintain competitiveness against other forms of energy generation. With renewables serving as an emerging low-carbon competitor, an added focus needs to be placed on indirect methods to increase the competitiveness of nuclear power. This thesis focuses on establishing pathways where nuclear power can be competitive with other forms of electricity generation given its advantages environmentally with Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), socioeconomically with legacy nuclear power plants, and through passive safety with SMRs. In Chapter 2, I estimate the life cycle GHG emissions and examine the cost of carbon abatement when nuclear is used to replace fossil fuels for the Westinghouse SMR (W-SMR) and AP1000. I created LCA models using past literature and Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the mean (and 90% confidence interval) life cycle GHG emissions of the W-SMR to be 7.4 g of CO2-eq/kwh (4.5 to 11.3 g of CO2-eq/kwh) and the AP1000 to be 7.6 g of CO2-eq/kwh (5.0 to 11.3 g of CO2-eq/kwh). Within the analysis I find that the estimated cost of carbon abatement with an AP1000 against coal and natural gas is $2/tonne of CO2-eq (-$13 to $26/tonne of CO2-eq) and $35/tonne of CO2-eq ($3 to $86/tonne of CO2-eq), respectively. In comparison, a W-SMR the cost of carbon abatement against coal and natural gas is $3/tonne of CO2- eq (-$15 to $28/tonne of CO2-eq) and $37/tonne of CO2-eq (-$1 to $90/tonne of CO2-eq), respectively. I conclude, with the exception of hydropower, the Westinghouse SMR design and the AP1000 have a smaller footprint than all other generation technologies including renewables. Assigning a cost to carbon for natural gas plant or implementing zero-emission incentives can improve the economic competitiveness of nuclear power through environmental competitiveness. The retirement of small and medium-scale coal power plants due the availability of natural gas can provide an opportunity for SMRs to replace that missing capacity. This trade-off between higher costs but lower GHG emissions demonstrates that depending on the value placed on carbon, SMR technology could be economically competitive with fossil fuel technologies Following my environmental competitiveness analysis, I shift towards investigating socioeconomic competitiveness of legacy large scale nuclear power plants compared to baseload coal and natural gas plants. In Chapter 3, I utilize ANOVA models, Tukey’s, and t-tests to explore the socioeconomic characteristics and disparities that exist within counties and communities that contain baseload power plants. My results indicate, relative to the home counties of nuclear plants, communities closer to nuclear plants have higher home values and incomes than those further away. Conversely, communities near coal and natural gas have incomes and home values that increase with distance from the plant. Communities near coal plants are typically either in less wealthy parts of the county or have a similar socioeconomic makeup as county. It can be suggested that equity issues regarding the community characteristics could be included in the discussion of converting existing power plants to use other fuel sources. Communities near power plants are not created equally and have different needs. While communities near nuclear power plants may benefit from the added tax base and absence of emissions, this is not the case for communities near coal and natural gas. With the impending retirement of large scale coal plants, the conversion of these plants to natural gas or small modular reactors presents an opportunity where negative environmental externalities can be reduced while also retaining some of the economic benefits. In Chapter 4, I present a model for estimating environmental dose exposure in a post-accident scenario to support scalable emergency planning zones (EPZs). The model includes calculating radionuclide inventory; estimating the impact decontamination factors from the AP1000, NUREG-6189, and EPRI’s Experimental Verification of Post-Accident iPWR Aerosol Behavior test will have on radioactivity within containment; and estimate dose exposure using atmospheric dispersion models. This work aims to compare historical decontamination factors with updated decontamination factors to outline the impact on containment radioactivity and dose exposure relative to the Environmental Protection Agency’s Protective Action Guide (PAG) limits. On average, I have found the AP1000, Surry, and iPWR produces 139, 153, and 104 curies/ft3 75 minutes after a LOCA. The iPWR produces less radioactivity per volume in containment than the AP1000 and Surry 84% and 96% of the time, respectively. The AP1000 produces less radioactivity per volume than Surry 68% of the time. On average, the AP1000, Surry, and iPWR produces 84,000, 106,000, and 7,000 curies/MWth 75 minutes after a LOCA. The lower bound 5 rem PAG limit is never exceeded for and does not exceeds the 1 rem lower PAG limit for whole body exposure at the 5-mile EPZ using the mean value. Considering this analysis uses a simple worst case Gaussian Plume model for atmospheric dispersion, the findings can be used to in conjunction with the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses (SOARCA) to provide accurate and realistic estimates for exposure. I believe this analysis can help to develop a regulatory basis for technology-neutral, risk-based approach to EPZs for iPWRs. Finally, in Chapter 5 I discuss historical challenges facing the nuclear industry, policy implications, and recommendations. These policy implications and recommendations serve as pathways to frame an new nuclear renaissance. I also recommend future work where I details opportunities for improvements to nuclear competitiveness. Ultimately, this thesis can help policy and decision makers that can improve competitiveness and minimize risk as it relates to the expansion of nuclear power sector.

The rapid development of nanotechnology has caused concerns about nanoproducts on human health throughout their lifecycle. As part of the consortium NEPHH (nanomaterial related environmental pollution on human health through their life cycle, funded by EU-FP7), this project aimed to assess the potential effect of novel polymer-silicon composites on human health from a lifecycle perspective, focusing on in vitro toxicity of raw silica nanoparticles (SiNP) and dust nanoparticles (NP) released from silicon-based polymer composites. The main objectives were to characterise a group of amorphous SiNP and dust NP in water and cell culture medium; assess NP toxicity potential in in vitro models; and establish mode of SiNP action. The selection of SiNP of size 7-14 nm was based on their wide use in developing polymer nanocomposites. Dust NP were generated from mechanical processing of polymer composites made of polyamide-6 (PA6), polyurethane (PU) and polypropylene (PP), each incorporated with SiNP or 3 other different silicon reinforcement materials. The dispersion and size of NP in water and in cell culture medium were characterized using dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The chemical composition of NP was assessed by infra-red spectroscopy. NP were assessed in vitro for induction of membrane damage, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), loss of cell viability, and cellular uptake by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. In order to identify potential biomarkers for toxicity prediction, miRNA array and extracellular metabonomic assays were performed. The size of SiNP (10-100 µg/ml) ranged from ~200-500 nm in water and ~20- 500 nm in culture medium, indicating the presence of aggregates. The infra-red spectrum of SiNP dried from culture medium showed a slight difference as compared with that dried from water, indicating protein adsorption. SiNP induced acute ROS increase, cell membrane damage, and reduction in cell viability after 48 h in human lung carcinoma epithelial A549 cells, lung fibroblast MRC-5 cells and skin HaCaT keratinocytes. SiNP were up taken by all 3 cell types, and located in the cytosol. Six early ( < 48h) SiNP responsive miRNAs were identified in A549 cells. SiNP also induced early changes in metabolites including glucose, lactate, ethanol, phenylalanine, histidine and tyrosine. Dust NP generated from PA6 group materials were more toxic than those from other polymer composites when assessed at 25-100 µg/ml at 72 h in A549 cells. The results obtained from this study suggest that 1) both small and larger SiNP aggregates are taken up into the target cells; 2) conventional cytotoxicity assays combined with miRNA and metabonomic assays provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of the nanotoxicity; 3) metabonomics and miRNA assays can serve as robust tools for recognising sub-toxic dose-effect relationships; 4) the toxicity of dust NP from polymer composites depends on polymer type but not reinforcement materials. This study demonstrated the importance of lifecycle analysis as opposed to single stage analysis of novel materials. Further studies need to improve study design to enable interpretation of cytotoxicity in relation to NP size, physiochemical property and intracellular dose, and to simulate the health effect of polymer-silicon composites under more realistic scenarios.

This thesis is focused on the method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Waste Management in the Czech Republic. The aim of this work is creation of landfill model and evaluate the main material, energy and elementary streams with influence on the environment. The output is an overview of each impact indicator, assessment most affected environmental categories by landfilling. and where is appropriate the optimization. The thesis consists of two parts, theoretical and experimental. The theoretical part deals generally about LCA, landfilling and municipal waste, their production and the possibilities of further handling them. In the experimental part is evaluated and compare the impact of 1 tonne lanfilling waste per 1 calendar year on several Czech landfills. The next was created average landfill model and its comparison with database models. Key words Landfill, Life Cycle Assessment, Waste Management, Municipal solid waste

Development of heavy rail intra-urban public transportation systems is an economically expensive policy tool for State and Local Governments that is often justified with the promise of economic development and neighborhood revitalization around station areas. However, the literature on the effects of rail intra-urban transit stations on neighborhoods is relatively thin, particularly on the socioeconomic effects. This quasi-experimental study evaluated the effect of heavy rail intra-urban transit stations on surrounding neighborhoods, using Atlanta, Georgia and its transit authority, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA), as a case study. Atlanta is an expansive American city, with a large public transportation system, but low population density and no large-scale policies promoting growth around MARTA rail stations. The study period, 1970 to 2014, covers the entire period of MARTA’s existence – stations opened between 1979 and 2000. Neighborhood change was operationalized with a neighborhood change index (NCI), built on the Neighborhood Life-Cycle framework, with an adaptation that incorporates both the filtering (negative NCI) and gentrification (positive NCI) models of neighborhood change. The study differentiates between an initial effect of new MARTA rail stations, and a long-term effect. Control groups were formed using one and three mile buffers, as well as a matching strategy. Difference-in-difference (DID) models find very little evidence of a positive relationship of NCI with the opening of new MARTA rail stations. The economic recovery that began in 2010 is of special interest for housing research. To address this time-period this study utilized two models, with mixed results. The DID model suggested a negative effect of stations on the NCI. To control for selection bias in the 2010 to 2014 economic time-period, this study utilized propensity score matching to balance the treatment and control group on observed characteristics. A time and tract fixed effects model using the matched treatment and control groups found a significant positive effect of stations on neighborhood change. To test the long-term effect, a time and tract fixed effects model (1970-2014) with the NCI as the dependent variable found a positive NCI effect of MARTA stations on neighborhoods. Therefore, overall, positive neighborhood change (on the NCI scale) can be attributed to MARTA transit stations. Since 2002 MARTA ridership has slightly declined; therefore, the study concludes that given stagnant ridership, lack of supporting policy, and the finding of a positive relationship between MARTA transit stations and gentrification, the stations are a positive amenity, and are a significant contributor to neighborhood change. However, neighborhoods are heterogeneous on many dimensions, and the effect of rail intra-urban transit stations on neighborhoods may depend on the tract’s location, service characteristics, accessibility, and many other unobserved characteristics. Future research will supplement this methodology with additional data and compare the effect of intra-urban transit stations on neighborhood change in other cities to better address potential neighborhood heterogeneity.

Treating water in order to reduce human and environmental risks requires the use of electricity and chemicals, the generation of which creates emissions of air pollutants such as NOx, SO2, PM2.5, and CO2. Emissions of air pollutants establishes a health and environmental risk tradeoff between air and water pollution. Addressing air-water tradeoffs by adopting a one environment framework requires new methods for quantifying these tradeoffs, new technologies to minimize air-water tradeoffs, and new tools for decision makers to incorporate these tradeoffs into compliance decisions. In my thesis, I develop methods for quantifying damages from air emissions associated with water treatment; assess the feasibility of forward osmosis (FO), a technology which holds the promise to avoid air-water tradeoffs; and create a tool to holistically assess compliance with air and water emission standards for coal-fired power plants (CFPPs). I start my thesis by creating a method to quantify the damages caused by the air emissions that resulting from the treatment of drinking water (Chapter 2), municipal wastewater (Chapter 3), and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) wastewater (Chapter 4). These studies use life-cycle models of energy and chemical consumption for individual water treatment unit processes in order to estimate embedded emissions of criteria air pollutants and greenhouse gasses per cubic meter of treated water. Damages from these additional air emissions are assessed and incorporated into benefit-cost analyses. I find that for drinking water rules, the net benefit of currently implemented rules remains positive but the promises of net benefits for some proposed rules are conditional on the compliance technology that is selected. For municipal wastewater, I find that while there are ~$240 million (in 2012 USD) benefits in air emission reduction from installing biogas-fueled electricity generation nationwide, there are several states where biogas-fueled electricity creates more air emissions than it displaces. For FGD wastewater treatment, I find that complying with the effluent limitation guidelines has an expected ratio of benefits to cost of1.7-1.8, with damages concentrated in regions with large chemical manufacturing industries or electricity grids that are heavily reliant on coal. In the next part of the thesis, I assess the techno-economic feasibility of power plant waste heat driven FO to reduce the air emissions associated with FGD wastewater treatment. In Chapter 5, I assess the quantity, quality and the spatial and temporal availability of waste heat from US coal, nuclear, and natural gas power plants. I find that while 18.9 billion GJ of potentially recoverable waste heat is discharged into the environment, only 900 million GJ of that heat is from the flue gas and is at a temperature high enough to drive water purification using forward osmosis (FO). In Chapter 6, I build a model of FO to assess its thermal energy consumption and find that the 900 million GJ of waste heat produced at coal and natural gas power plants is sufficient to meet their boiler feedwater and FGD wastewater treatment needs. In Chapter 7, I incorporate cost into the energy consumption model of FO, and conclude that treatment of FGD and gasification wastewater using waste heat driven FO is economically competitive with mechanical vapor recompression. In Chapter 8, I create an energy-balance model of a CFPP and nine environmental control technologies for compliance with FGD wastewater and carbon capture regulations. I use this model to maximize plant revenue at the National Energy Technology Laboratory’s 550 MW model CFPP without carbon capture. I find that revenue is maximized by using residual heat for water treatment or carbon capture. If both carbon capture and zero liquid discharge water treatment regulatory standards are in place, I conclude that the plant maximizes revenue by allocating residual heat and steam to amine-based carbon capture and electricity to mechanical vapor recompression for FGD wastewater treatment.

Definitions for logistics are numerous. Logistics is furthermore divisionalised amongst functional lines as well as industry lines. Therefore one hears about military logistics, business logistics, marketing logistics, engineering logistics, logistics relating to e-commerce and some more. Within the various professional disciplines and societies the viewpoints differ even more than the definitions. The reason for this confusion when it comes to defining and understanding logistics is because of the way in which logistics is functionalised. With all these different functional focusses the emphasis tends to be on detailed logistics solutions often causing sub-optimisation of systems. There seems to be a lack of a unifying logistics approach that will allow consideration of the dynamic nature of systems to ensure system optimisation rather than sub-system optimisation. This thesis proposes a different approach to prevent the sub-optimisation of logistics by viewing logistics from a system perspective rather than a functional perspective and at the same time consider the life-cycle of the system of interest. When viewing logistics from a system perspective, the question to ask is not to which function logistics belong, but within each phase of the system life-cycle, what the contribution is logistics needs to make to the overall system performance. In order to view logistics from a system and life-cycle perspective, there needs to exist an understanding of systems and system concepts. This understanding has to be supplemented by an understanding how systems are created. As logistics is concerned with man-made systems, two types of man-made systems require A generic approach to integrated logistic support for whole-life whole-systems understanding, namely organisational systems and product systems, also known as durable goods. By using the system principles of holism, synthetic thinking and teleology, it is demonstrated that all systems can be described by generic sub-systems (the logistic subsystem being one of them), the success of all systems can be measured using the generic system measurements of ability, availability and affordability, and that all systems go through a life-cycle. Based on the reality that organisations and durable products/services all possess system characteristics as described above, and that non-durable products/services form part of a higher level system, a generic model has been constructed indicating the relationships and flow of the managerial and technical logistics activities which need to take place at each stage of the system’s life-cycle to ensure that the system ability, availability and affordability requirements are met. To validate the model, high level system dynamic relationships were constructed and the outcome of the application and non-application of the model argued using thought experiments. This was done using an imaginary system comparing the effects if the dynamic approach to logistics for the system is ignored to the effects if the dynamic approach to logistics for the system is followed. The thought experiment was done for all dimensions of logistics, namely operational support and maintenance support as well as for the management of each dimension throughout the life-cycle. It is thus concluded that following a dynamic approach to the logistics of a system greatly enhances the system performance. / Dissertation (PhD (Industrial Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2004. / Industrial and Systems Engineering / unrestricted

While the value of psychobiographical research continues to be debated, interest in this area is growing on an international basis. From the ever increasing number of studies being conducted in connection with academic institutions in South Africa, the vitality and worthiness of studying lives lived in conjunction with the applicability of psychological theories is showing itself to be an exciting world in which to participate. This particular research study aimed to explore and describe the developmental life stages of Paul Jackson Pollock. Pollock was, and continues to be, a controversial figure in the art world as there is much debate over the artistic merit of his paintings. Unconventional in all that he did, Pollock challenged the art world by moving beyond paintbrush and easel to throwing paint across canvasses laid out on the floor. Around these emerging artworks he would move in a staccato dance, mesmerising those present by the way he made art immediate using his entire body to create the abstract image. Pollock is credited with being the pioneer of abstract expressionism in the United States, and to date his paintings are credited as being among the most expensive ever sold. He struggled with alcoholism and emotional instability throughout his teens and adult life. His alcoholism eventually caused his death at the age of 44 when, while heavily intoxicated, he drove his car into a tree a few metres from his home. No known literature has adopted an exclusively psychological stance when studying the life of this individual. The progression of Pollock’s lifespan development was filtered through Erikson’s (1950) theory of psychosocial stages. Erikson’s (1950) theory takes a holistic, biopsychosocial approach to human development, with an emphasis on ego development. Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources to enhance internal validity, and the data was then analysed according to Miles and Huberman’s 1994 general approach, taking Alexander’s (1990) nine identifiers of salience into necessary consideration. Using this framework, it was found that Jackson Pollock’s development coincides with Erikson’s theoretical psychosocial stage constructs, lending weight to Erikson’s theory. While Pollock’s life paralleled Erikson’s (1950) theory in many ways, the theory failed to provide enough definition with regards to constructs and intrapsychic processes. However, this study has also shown that there is great value and relevance to be found in Erikson’s (1950) theory, even though it was developed over fifty years ago.

The aim of this research has been to identify the most sustainable options for electricity production in Mexico with an outlook to 2050. An integrated methodology for sustainability assessment of different electricity technologies and scenarios has been developed, taking into account environmental, economic and social aspects. The environmental impacts have been estimated using life cycle assessment; the economic costs considered include total capital and annualised costs while social aspects include security and diversity of energy supply, public acceptability, health and safety impacts and intergenerational issues. To help identify the most sustainable options, multi-criteria decision analysis has been used. The methodology has been applied to Mexican conditions for the assessment of both current and future electricity production. The results for the current situation show that on a life cycle basis 129 million tonnes of CO2 eq. are emitted annually from 225 TWh of electricity generated in Mexico. Heavy fuel oil, gas and coal power plants contribute together to 87% of CO2 eq. emissions. Total annualised costs are estimated at US$ 22.4 billion/yr with the fuel costs contributing 54%, mainly due to the operation of gas and heavy fuel oil power plants. A range of future scenarios up to 2050 has been developed in an attempt to identify the most sustainable options. The development of the scenarios has been driven and informed by the national greenhouse gas emission reduction target of 50% by 2050 on the 2000 levels, translating to an 85% reduction from the power sector. The results show that the business as usual (BAU) scenario (with the highest contribution from fossil fuels) is the least sustainable option with the CO2 eq. emissions increasing by almost 300% and the annualised costs by 290% for a projected electricity demand of 813 TWh in 2050. Overall, the most sustainable scenarios are those with higher penetration of renewable energies (wind, solar and hydro) and nuclear power, as in Green, A-3 and C-3. For example, compared to the BAU scenarios, the CO2 eq. emissions reduce by 84%, 89% and 89%, respectively. Although renewable energy based scenarios require high capital costs, the total annualised costs even out over time due to lower fuel costs. The lowest annualised costs are for C-3 scenario, representing a 40% reduction on BAU. With respect to social issues, the BAU scenario is also the least preferred option with the highest risks related to security and diversity of supply, health and safety and climate change. The most sustainable options are scenarios A-3 and Green, with social barriers related to public acceptability, reliability of supply and availability of energy resource. Most critical aspects for scenario C-3 are health and safety risks, and intergenerational issues related to nuclear power. Therefore, the Mexican Government should aim to strengthen the current low carbon energy policies as well as put measures in place to encourage reducing the electricity demand. In the case of the energy policy driver focusing on climate change mitigation or annualised costs, scenarios A-3 and C-3 are the most sustainable options.

Integrated bio-refineries offer a potential for a more sustainable production of fuels and chemicals. However, the sustainability implications of integrated bio-refineries are still poorly understood. Therefore, this work aims to contribute towards a better understanding of the sustainability of these systems. For these purposes, a methodological framework has been developed to assess the sustainability of different 2nd generation feedstocks to produce bio-ethanol, energy, and platform chemicals using bio-chemical or thermo-chemical routes in an integrated bio-refinery.The methodology involves environmental, techno-economic, and social assessment of the bio-refinery supply chain. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is used for the environmental assessment. The economic assessment is carried out using life cycle costing (LCC) along side traditional economic indicators such as net present value and payback period. Social issues such as employment provision and health and safety are considered within the social sustainability assessment. The methodology has been applied to two case studies using the bio-chemical and the thermo-chemical conversion routes and four feedstocks: wheat straw, poplar, miscanthus and forest residue.For the conditions assumed in this work and per litre of ethanol produced, the LCA results indicate that the thermo-chemical conversion is more environmentally sustainable than the bio-chemical route for eight out of 11 environmental impacts considered. The LCA results also indicate that the main hot spot in the supply chain for both conversion routes is feedstock cultivation. The thermo-chemical route is economically more sustainable than the bio-chemical because of the lower capital and operating costs. From the social sustainability point of view, the results suggest that provision of employment would be higher in the bio-chemical route but so would the health and safety risks.

This research has assessed the environmental and economic sustainability of domestic micro-generation technologies under UK conditions as both individual technologies and as part of a range of future energy supply scenarios for the domestic sector extending to 2050. A life cycle approach has been used for both environmental and economic assessment considering the relevant sustainability impacts, which include global warming potential, the depletion of fossil fuels, human toxicity and life cycle cost. The micro-generation technologies studied were selected on the basis of their ability to contribute to current and future energy supply and also their suitability under UK conditions. These technologies were micro-wind, solar photovoltaics, micro-combined heat and power, heat pumps and solar thermal water heating. The technologies were compared with one another and with the incumbent technologies, which were grid electricity and natural gas condensing boilers. Three journal papers have been published as a result of this research. The evaluation of micro-generation technologies on a life cycle basis indicated that despite reducing certain environmental impacts, all technologies increased at least one and as many as eight environmental impacts compared to their current fossil-fuel alternatives. All micro-generation technologies would reduce global warming and fossil fuel depletion compared to conventional technologies, highlighting their potential to contribute to energy policy goals. However, they cannot currently compete with conventional technologies for capital cost, although their life cycle costs – taking into account incentives from schemes such as Feed-in Tariffs – can be competitive. Considering both environmental and economic implications suggested that Stirling engine micro-combined heat and power is one of the most sustainable options for heat and electricity generation. The results also suggested that heat pumps should not be receiving incentives from the Government due to their poor environmental performance. Four potential future energy supply scenarios for the UK domestic sector were studied extending to 2050. The scenarios varied in terms of the level of effort made to improve the environmental and economic sustainability of the sector. Scenario 1 involved no further implementation of micro-generation beyond 2009, increasing energy demand and a grid electricity dominated by fossil fuels. In contrast, Scenario 4 portrayed a future where there is 1 micro-generation technology per dwelling, a 50% reduction in demand and almost complete decarbonisation of the grid mix. The results indicated that a huge transformation of the sector is required to achieve the 80% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050. This would include halving energy demand, almost complete decarbonisation of grid electricity and the installation of a micro-generation unit in every dwelling. To conclude, despite the level of interest micro-generation is currently receiving, this work suggested their usage may not necessarily be as beneficial as some believe. Their use does reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel consumption; however, to have any influence on energy policy goals this use would have to be widespread. Furthermore, reduced emissions will come at the expense of other environmental impacts. Finally, with a number of the technologies not yet cost competitive – even with incentives – the Government focus on measures to reduce demand and decarbonise the grid may prove to be a better option as this work suggested that energy policy goals could be achieved without high penetration of micro-generation.