The rapid advancement in complimentary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) electronics has led to a reduction in the sizes of wireless sensor networks (WSN) and a subsequent decrease in their power requirements. To meet these power requirements for long time of operation, energy harvesters have been developed at the micro scale which can convert vibration energy into electrical energy. Recent studies have shown that for mechanical-to-electrical conversion at the mm-scale (or micro scale), piezoelectric mechanism provides the best output power density at low frequencies as compared to the other possible mechanisms for vibration energy harvesting (VEH). However, piezoelectric-based VEH presents a fundamental challenge at the micro scale since the resonance frequency of the structure increases as the dimension decreases. Electromagnetic induction is another voltage generation mechanism that has been utilized for VEH. However, the electromagnetic induction based VEH is limited by the magnet and coil size and the decrease in power density at the micro scale. Hybrid energy harvesting is a novel concept that allows for increased power response and increased optimization of the generated voltage. The work in this field is currently limited due to integration challenges at small dimensions. An effective design for low frequency piezoelectric VEH is presented in this work. A unique cantilever design called arc-based cantilever (ABC) is presented which exhibits low natural frequencies as compared to traditional cantilevers. A general out-of-plane vibration model for ABCs was developed that incorporated the effects of bending, torsion, transverse shear deformation and rotary inertia. Different configurations of micro ABCs were investigated through analytical modeling and validation experiments. ABC structures were fabricated for dual-phase energy harvesting from vibrations and magnetic fields. Next, a levitation-induced electromagnetic VEH concept based on double-repulsion configuration in the moving magnet composite was studied. Computational modeling clearly illustrated the advantages of the double-repulsion configuration over the single-repulsion and no-repulsion configurations. Based on the modeling results, an AA battery-sized harvester with the double-repulsion configuration was fabricated, experimentally characterized and demonstrated to charge a cell phone. The scaling analysis of electromagnetic energy harvesters was conducted to understand the performance across different length scales. A micro electromagnetic harvester was developed that exhibited softening nonlinear spring behavior, thus leading to the finding of nonlinear inflection in magnetically-levitated electromagnetic harvesters. The nonlinear inflection theory was developed to show its causal parameters. Lastly, a coupled harvester is presented that combines the piezoelectric and electromagnetic voltage mechanisms. The advantages of each mechanism were shown to positively contribute to the performance of hybrid harvester. The cantilever provided low stiffness, low frequency, and pure bending, while the magnetic system provided nonlinearity, broadband response, and increased strain (and thus voltage). / Ph. D.

The effects of interplanetary shock impact angles have the potential to have far reaching consequences. By their nature, interplanetary shocks are a direct consequence of a variety of solar events including both Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) and Co-rotating Interaction Regions (CIRs). They have the ability to move the magnetopause, the boundary between the Earth's magnetosphere and the surrounding plasma, leading to ionospheric current systems and an enhanced ring current. Their association with a time-varying EMF also makes them potentially dangerous at a human level. This EMF can couple to electrical currents in technological infrastructure that can overload transformers, communication cables, and power grids. As IP shocks have the potential to have a large impact on our society, research to further our understanding of these events is prudent. We know that shocks can couple to currents and ULF waves in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system. Much of the current research into their behaviors has been focused on models and simulations and has indicated that the shock impact angle should affect the properties of the waves. To investigate the potential influence of the impact angle, data from a series of Antarctic magnetometers was collected and compared to a database of known interplanetary shocks to determine when the response to different shocks was detected at the magnetometer. For this investigation, we were concerned with determining what impact if any, the impact angle of the IP shock had on the generation of Pc5 waves. To that end, the power spectra both before and after the shock was calculated. This information was then combined with the shock impact angle to determine what effects if any, the shock impact angle had on Pc5 wave occurrence rates. From our research, it was determined that the impact angle of the interplanetary shock had a significant impact on the occurrence rate and properties of Pc5 waves observed by high-latitude ground magnetometers. / Master of Science / Interplanetary shocks, drive interactions between the solar wind and the Earth’s atmosphere, and they have the potential to have far reaching consequences. Caused by a variety of solar events including both Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) and Co-rotating Interaction Regions (CIRs), they have the ability to physically move the locations of regional boundaries of the ionized part of Earth’s atmosphere, leading to a variety of electromagnetic effects. They also pose a danger at the human level by generating electrical currents in technological infrastructure that can overload transformers, communication cables, and power grids. As they pose a danger to our society, understanding them is prudent. A large portion of the current research into their behaviors has been focused on models and simulations and has shown that the shock impact angle should affect the properties of the waves. For this investigation, data from a series of Antarctic sensors was collected and compared to a database of known interplanetary shocks to determine when different shocks were detected. Specifically, for our investigation, we were concerned with determining what impact if any, the impact angle of the IP shock had on the generation of Pc5 waves, a specific type of ULF wave. This was accomplished by calculating the power level at different frequencies both before and after the shock. This information was then combined with the shock impact angle to determine what effects if any, the shock impact angle had on Pc5 wave occurrence rates. From our research we found that the impact angle of the interplanetary shock had a significant impact on the generation of Pc5 waves.

The ever-increasing demand for wireless communication has led to an incentive to increase the data rate and reduce the size of communication devices, be it antennas or other components of RF front-ends. The emphasis is primarily on increasing data rate, which leads to the use of higher frequency bands and wider bandwidths in modern communication technology research and innovations. However, increasing frequency in many technology areas cannot necessarily be beneficial because of physical constraints. For example, communication under seawater or other RF harsh environment requires very-low-frequency (VLF) or ultra-low-frequency (ULF) signals to penetrate lossy media that block high-frequency signals. Furthermore, recent advances in neuroscience have demonstrated the potential of VLF and ULF electromagnetic (EM) waves for studying brain function and treating neurological conditions. The main challenge is that most VLF and ULF generators are large and power-hungry, making them impractical to use in many applications. As a result, recent approaches using permanent magnets have started to provide groundbreaking solutions that can revolutionize VLF/ULF communication. This work presents a new method for generating low-frequency EM waves for navigation and communication in challenging environments, such as underwater and underground, as well as magnetic stimulation of brain neurons. The key concept is to disturb the magnetic energy stored around a permanent magnet in a time-variant fashion. The magnetic reluctance of the medium around the permanent magnet is modulated to alter the magnetic flux intensity and direction (disturb the stored energy) in order to achieve this goal. The nonlinear properties of the surrounding magnetic material are a critical phenomenon for efficient and effective modulation. Since the proposed method of generating the EM field is not based on a second-order system (resonant structure), the bandwidth of any modulation schema is not limited to the overall system quality factor. A transmitter is prototyped as a proof of concept, and the generated field is measured. Compared to the rotating magnet, the prototyped transmitter can modulate up to 50% of the permanent magnet's stored energy with much lower power consumption. The magnetic equivalent circuit (MEC) approach is also used to analyze the transmitter. Finally, the transmitter is optimized, and the measurement results show a 7 dB improvement in efficiency compared to the primary structure. As a result of promising performance, we propose that this method be used to improve the performance of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) devices. Furthermore, the comparison simulated results back up the validity of the proposed technique, revealing that focality and penetration depth are improved while utilizing much less power than traditional TMS devices. / Doctor of Philosophy / The growing demand for wireless communication has created an incentive to increase the data rate while decreasing the size of communication devices, whether they are antennas or other radio frequency (RF) components between the antenna and at least one mixing stage of a receiver and/or the power amplifier of the transmitter. The emphasis is primarily on increasing data rate, which leads to the use of higher frequency bands and wider bandwidths in modern communication technology research and innovations. However, increasing frequency in many technology areas may not be beneficial because of physical constraints. For example, communication under seawater or underground requires very-low-frequency (VLF) or ultra-low-frequency (ULF) signals to penetrate lossy media that block high-frequency signals. Furthermore, recent advances in neuroscience have demonstrated the potential of VLF and ULF electromagnetic (EM) waves for studying brain function and treating neurological conditions. The main challenge is that most VLF and ULF generators are large and power-hungry, making them unsuitable for many applications. As a result, recent approaches using permanent magnets have started to provide groundbreaking solutions that can revolutionize VLF/ULF communication. This work presents a new method for generating low-frequency EM waves for navigation and communication in challenging environments, such as underwater and underground, as well as magnetic stimulation of brain neurons. The key idea is to disturb the magnetic energy stored around a permanent magnet in a time-variant fashion. The magnetic reluctance of the medium around the permanent magnet is modulated to change the magnetic flux intensity and direction (disturb the stored energy) in order to achieve this goal. The nonlinear properties of the surrounding magnetic material are a critical factor in achieving efficient and effective modulation. Since the proposed method of generating the EM field does not rely on a second-order system (resonant structure), the bandwidth of any modulation schema is not constrained by the overall system quality factor. As a proof of concept, a transmitter is prototyped, and the generated field is measured. Compared to the rotating magnet, the prototyped transmitter can modulate up to 50% of the permanent magnet's stored energy with much lower power consumption. The magnetic equivalent circuit (MEC) approach is also used to analyze the transmitter. Finally, the transmitter is optimized, and the measurement results show a 7 dB improvement in efficiency compared to the primary structure. As a result of promising performance, we propose that this method be used to improve the performance of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) devices. Furthermore, the comparison simulated results support the validity of the proposed technique, revealing that focality and penetration depth are improved while using much less power than traditional TMS devices.

Modifications of large reflector antennas, such that their observing capabilities are enhanced in the range of about 10-500~MHz without affecting operation of the pre-existing higher-frequency systems, are addressed in this dissertation. The major contributions of this dissertation can be divided into two parts: 1) designing new low frequency feeds, and 2) developing new analysis methodologies which, as opposed to traditional techniques, are suitable for analyzing low frequency systems. First, we consider the performance of existing schemes that provide low frequency capability. Then, a new class of dipole-based low frequency feeds - namely, the ``distributed feed array'' - is designed to cover the frequency range of interest without affecting operation at higher frequencies. As an example, distributed feed arrays are designed for the Expanded Very Large Array (EVLA) to cover the range of 50-250~MHz. A method of moments (MoM) model of an EVLA antenna is developed for this purpose. The new design shows performance comparable to the existing 4 m system on the EVLA in the range of 50-88~MHz, and introduces observing capabilities in the range of 110-250~MHz (currently not covered by the EVLA). Moreover, the blockage presented to the existing EVLA L-band system is reduced significantly when the existing 4 m system is replaced by the proposed system. At low frequencies, external noise can be a significant or dominant contribution to the total noise of the system. This, combined with mutual coupling between the array elements of the distributed feed array, makes it difficult to predict the sensitivity of these systems. This dissertation describes a system model and procedure for estimating the system equivalent flux density (SEFD) - a useful and meaningful metric of the sensitivity of a radio telescope - that accounts for these issues. We consider the efficiency of methods other than MoM - in particular, Physical Optics (PO), Uniform Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (UTD), and hybrid methods - for accelerated computation at low frequencies. A method for estimating the blockage presented by low frequency systems to the pre-existing higher-frequency systems is also described. / Ph. D.

At low frequency where the acoustic wavelength is greater than the size of the vibrating structure, the radiated acoustic power is directly related to the volume velocity of the structure. Thus, minimizing the volume velocity is an effective noise reduction approach for low frequency structurally radiated noise. This thesis analytically investigates a passive volume velocity noise control device for acoustic surface treatment of planar structures. The device is referred to as a weak radiating cell. This device consists of two mechanically coupled surfaces such that, when placed on a vibrating structure, the response of the two surfaces are nearly out-of-phase and of equal strength over a wide frequency range. The response of the two surfaces forms a local acoustic dipole, with minimum volume velocity, that results in noise reduction. Thus, the control of low frequency structurally radiated noise is achieved by covering the structure with an array of these weak radiating cells. Several numerical models are developed to investigate the weak radiating cell noise control mechanisms. The first model consists of a simply supported beam treated with an array of weak radiating cell. In this model, the dynamic interaction effects between the beam and the cells are included. Results from this model predict an overall sound power level reduction of 9.8 dB between 0-1600 Hz and 20 dB between 0-251 Hz. In addition, this model is used to investigate techniques to improve the noise reduction capabilities of the device. A model of weak radiating cells applied to a simply supported plate is next developed as an extension of the beam model. The results from this model are compared to previous experimental data. Good agreement is observed between results, which validates the modeling technique. Lastly, a model of an infinite 2D plate treated with weak radiating cells is developed. The model does not consider any dynamic interaction effect between the structure and the cells. Only the acoustic behavior of the weak radiating cell is included in this model. In addition, both the structural and acoustic responses are obtained in closed form through a wavenumber transform approach. Each of these models and their results offer valuable information that results in a better understanding the weak radiating cell and it potential as a low frequency passive noise control device. / Master of Science

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:37:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Jorge Enrifque Samanes Cardenas.pdf: 3561395 bytes, checksum: ba28ce6fbd3bd0e1573255ccacb30d17 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-17 / Fundo Mackenzie de Pesquisa / Deep amplitude minima are observed in the daily records of Very Low Frequency (VLF, between 3 - 30 kHz) wave amplitudes. Amplitude minima are attributed to modal interference and modal conversion of waves propagating in the Earth - Ionosphere waveguide. The time of amplitude minima is related with the localization of the Terminator line and, therefore, is denominated of Terminator Time or TT time. In this work, we developed a methodology based on the monitoring of TT time to infer the distance of modal interference D and its temporal variation in relation to atmospheric and natural phenomena. For this purpose, we used data provided by the South America VLF Network (SAVNET) to the period 2007 - 2011. The results showed that the methodology is a promising tool to study the dynamics of the lower ionosphere, by means of the daily values of the undisturbed nighttime ionospheric height(hN). We identified short-term and long-term time variations of hN, where the long-term variation is possibly related with the solar activity cycle. We propose the use of this method to search for seismic- electromagnetic effects, and that it should be applied to medium and short propagation paths. Using the Long Wave Propagation Capability (LWPC) code, we simulated TT times and the results show good agreement with the observations, so a value for nighttime height hN = 88 km is suggested. This work will contribute to a greater viability of the use of the VLF technique for the study of the lower ionosphere and the forcings acting on this region of the atmosphere. / Pronunciados mínimos de amplitude são observados nos registros diários de sinais de muito baixa frequência ou VLF (do inglês Very Low Frequency, entre 3 - 30 kHz). A presença destes mínimos é atribuída a interferência e conversão modal de ondas se propagando no guia de onda Terra - Ionosfera. Os tempos de ocorrência destes mínimos são relacionados com a localização do Terminadouro e, por isso, são denominados de tempos de Terminadouro ou Tempos TT. Neste trabalho, desenvolvemos uma metodologia baseada no monitoramento dos tempos TT para inferir a distância de interferência modal D, e sua variabilidade temporal em relação a fenômenos atmosféricos e naturais. Para isso, utilizamos dados fornecidos pela rede SAVNET (South America VLF Network) durante o período 2007 - 2011. Os resultados mostraram que a metodologia é relevante para estudar a dinâmica da baixa ionosfera, através da obtenção de valores diários da altura noturna hN. Identificamos variabilidades de curto e longo período para hN, sendo estas últimas relacionadas ao ciclo de atividade solar. O método deverá ser aplicado à procura de efeitos sismo-eletromagnéticos utilizando caminhos com comprimento médios ou curtos. Foram realizadas simulações dos tempos TT, utilizando o código Long Wave Propagation Capability (LWPC), que mostraram boa concordância com as observações, sugerindo um valor de hN = 88 km para a altura noturna da baixa ionosfera. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho contribuem para uma maior viabilização do uso da técnica de VLF, para o estudo da baixa ionosfera e os forçantes que agem sobre esta região da atmosfera terrestre.

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The objective of this thesis is to use radio emissions from lightning, known as `radio atmospherics' or `sferics', to study the temporal and spatial variation of the lower ionosphere, a layer of ionized atmosphere beginning at $\sim$70 km altitude (D-region). Very Low Frequency (VLF, 3$-$30kHz) radio waves are a useful diagnostic for lower ionospheric monitoring due to their reflection from this region and global propagation. Traditionally, the lower ionosphere has been sensed using single-frequency VLF transmitters allowing for analysis of a single propagation path, as there are only a small number of transmitters. A lightning stroke, however, releases an intense amount of impulsive broadband VLF radio energy in the form of a sferic, which propagates through the Earth-ionosphere waveguide. Lightning is globally distributed and very frequent, so a sferic is therefore also a useful diagnostic of the D-region. This is true both for ambient or quiet conditions, and for ionospheric perturbations such as solar flare x-ray bursts. Lightning strokes effectively act as separate VLF transmitting sources. As such, they uniquely provide the ability to add a spatial component to ionospheric remote sensing, in addition to their broadband signature which cannot be achieved with man-made transmitters. We describe the methods of processing in detail. As an example, we analyze a solar flare during which time there is a significant change in magnitude and frequency content of sferics. This disturbance varies with distance from the source, as well as time. We describe the methods of processing in detail, and show results at Palmer Station, Antarctica for both a quiet and active solar day.

During the boreal cool season (December – February) extreme temperature regimes (ETRs), including cold air outbreaks (CAOs) and warm waves (WWs), affect regional economies and human safety via their significant impacts on energy consumption, local agriculture and human health. This work aims to improve our understanding of the trends and variability in ETRs, their physical connections to low frequency modes, and the dynamical mechanisms leading to ETR onset. Earlier studies on ETR trends and variability do not consider the last decade. Further, little is known about the physical and dynamical nature of ETR onset. These unknowns motivate this dissertation and are particularly important for WWs, which have rarely been studied. This study begins with an updated analysis of the long-term trends and interannual variability in ETRs. Even with the inclusion of the last decade, no significant trends in either WW or CAO occurrence are identified over the continental United States between 1949-2011. The accompanying correlation analysis reveals that on interannual time scales, ETRs in specific regions of the U.S. tend to be modulated by certain low frequency modes. This analysis highlights an important regional asymmetry in the low frequency mode modulation of ETRs, and also indicates that the influence of ENSO upon ATRs is mainly limited to a modest modulation of WWs over the southeast US. Further, a multiple linear regression analysis reveals that the regional collective influence of low-frequency modes accounts for as much as 50% of interannual ETR variability. A synoptic-dynamic characterization of ETR onset over the southeast US is then performed using composite time-evolution analyses of events occurring between 1949-2011 to provide a qualitative indication of the role of low frequency modes. During CAO (WW) onset, negative (positive) geopotential height anomalies are observed in the upper troposphere over the Southeast with oppositely-signed anomalies in the lower troposphere over the central US. In most cases, there is a surface east-west height anomaly dipole, with anomalous northerly (CAO) or southerly (WW) flow into the Southeast leading to cold or warm surface air temperature anomalies, respectively. Companion potential vorticity anomaly analyses reveal prominent features in the mid- to upper-troposphere consistent with the geopotential height anomaly patterns. The composite analyses reveal significant roles for both synoptic and large-scale disturbances in ETR development. Synoptic-scale disturbances serve as dynamic triggers for ETR events, while low-frequency modes can provide a favorable environment for ETR onset. A suite of diagnostic analyses is conducted next and aims to identify the primary thermodynamic processes and dynamical mechanisms responsible for ETR development over the Southeast US. Heat budget analyses implicate linear temperature advection as the primary contributor to ETR development, while nonlinear advection plays a smaller role. Both the linear and the nonlinear terms contribute positively to the temperature tendencies of interest, while the adiabatic and diabatic terms offset some of the advection contributions. Piecewise PV inversion analyses are then conducted to assess which dynamical features directly contribute to the local temperature changes that occur in association with ETRs. A novel result is the discovery of the potential pathway through which the low frequency mode modulation of ETRs takes place. An upper-tropospheric PV feature first induces near-surface temperature advection, which then creates a near-surface temperature anomaly and a corresponding circulation that further enhances the initial temperature advection and ultimately leads to the ETR event.