Iso-octane, n-heptane, ethanol and their blends were tested in a constant volume combustion chamber to measure laminar burning velocities. The experimental apparatus was modified from the previous version to an automatically-controlled system. Accuracy and speed of data acquisition were improved by this modification. The laminar burning velocity analysis code was also improved for minimized error and fast calculation. A large database of laminar burning velocities at elevated temperatures and pressures was established using this improved experimental apparatus and analysis code. From this large database of laminar burning velocities, laminar flame speeds were extracted. Laminar flame speeds of iso-octane, n-heptane and blends were investigated and analysed to derive new correlations to predict laminar flame speeds of any blending ratio. Ethanol and ethanol blends with iso-octane and/or n-heptane were also examined to see the role of ethanol in the blends. Generally, the results for iso-octane and n-heptane agree with published data. Additionally, blends of iso-octane and n-heptane exhibited flame speeds that followed linear blending relationships. A new flame speed model was successfully applied to these fuels. Ethanol and ethanol blends with iso-octane and/or n-heptane exhibited a strongly non-linear blending relationship and the new flame speed model was not applied to these fuels. It was shown that the addition of ethanol into iso-octane and/or n-heptane accelerated the flame speeds. / text

The later stages of separated shear layer transition within separation bubbles developing over a NACA0018 airfoil operating at a chord Reynolds number of 105 and at angles of attack of 0, 5, 8, and 10 degrees were investigated experimentally in a wind tunnel. Several experimental tools, including a rake of six boundary-layer hot-wire anemometers, were used to perform measurements over the model. Novel high-speed flow visualization performed with a smoke-wire placed within the separated shear layer showed that roll-up vortices are shed within separation bubbles forming on the suction side of the airfoil. The structures were found to convect downstream and eventually break down during laminar-to-turbulent transition. Top view visualizations revealed that, at angles of attack of 0, 5, and 8 degrees, roll-up vortices form coherently across the span and undergo significant spanwise deformations prior to breaking down. At angles of attack of 5 and 8 degrees, rows of streamwise-oriented structures were observed to form during vortex breakdown. Statistics regarding the formation and development of shear layer roll-up vortices were extracted from high-speed flow visualization sequences and compared to the results of boundary layer measurements. It was found that, on the average, roll-up vortices form following the initial exponential growth of unstable disturbances within the separated shear layer and initiate the later stages of transition. The onset of these nonlinear stages was found to occur when the amplitude of velocity disturbances reached approximately 10% of the free-stream velocity. The rate of vortex shedding was found to fall within the frequency band of the unstable disturbances and lie near the central frequency of this band. The formation of vortices has been linked to the generation of harmonics of these unstable disturbances in velocity signals acquired ahead of mean transition. Once shed, vortices were found to drift at speeds between 33% and 44% of the edge velocity. Vortex merging at an angle of attack of 5?? was investigated. It was found that the majority of roll-up vortices proceed to merge with either one or two other vortices. Vortex merging between two and three vortices was found to occur periodically in a process similar to vortex merging in plane mixing layers undergoing subharmonic forcing of the most amplified disturbance. The flapping motion of the separated shear layer was investigated by performing a cross-correlation analysis on the high-speed flow visualization sequences to extract vertical displacement signals of the smoke within the shear layer. The frequency of flapping was found to correspond to the unstable disturbance band. At an angle of attack of 5??, it was found that the separated shear layer has a low-frequency component of flapping that matches a strong peak in velocity and surface pressure spectra that lies outside the unstable disturbance frequency band. The spanwise development of disturbances was assessed in the aft portion of the separation bubbles by performing a cross-correlation analysis on signals acquired simultaneously across the span with the rake of hot-wires. The spanwise correlations between signals was found to be well-correlated ahead of shear layer roll-up, after which disturbances became rapidly uncorrelated ahead of mean reattachment. These results were found to be linked to the coherent roll-up and subsequent breakdown of roll-up vortices.

Resumo: O presente trabalho trata da solução de uma classe de problemas difusivo-convectivos, tanto de natureza elíptica como parabólica, em domínios de geometrias não-convencionais, através da aplicação da Transformada Integral. Para facilitar o tratamento analítico e a aplicação das condições de contorno, antes da aplicação da Técnica da Transformada Integral Generalizada - TTIG sobre a equação governante do problema estudado, emprega-se uma Transformação Conforme - TC visando efetuar uma mudança de coordenadas adequada. Analisa-se inicialmente o problema hidrodinâmico do escoamento laminar completamente desenvolvido de fluidos Newtonianos no interior de dutos. Para a obtenção do campo de velocidades do escoamento aplica-se a TTIG sobre a equação da quantidade de movimento. Os parâmetros hidrodinâmicos de interesse, tais como: velocidades média e máxima, fator de atrito de Fanning, fator de Hagenbach, número de Poiseuille, comprimento de entrada hidrodinâmico e queda de pressão são calculados para as diversas geometrias. Feito isso, efetua-se o estudo dos problemas difusivo-convectivos relacionados à transferência de calor do escoamento laminar hidrodinamicamente desenvolvido e termicamente em desenvolvimento de fluidos Newtonianos com perfil de temperatura de entrada uniforme em dutos submetidos a condições de contorno de Dirichlet. Para a obtenção do campo de temperatura aplica-se a TTIG sobre a equação da energia e então, calculam-se os parâmetros térmicos de interesse: temperatura média de mistura, números de Nusselt local e médio e comprimento de entrada térmica. Realiza-se, quando possível, a comparação dos resultados obtidos para os parâmetros termos-hidráulicos com os disponíveis na literatura. / Abstract: The present work describes the solution of a class of elliptical-parabolic diffusiveconvective problems, on unconventional geometries, employing the Generalized Integral Transform Technique (GITT). In order to facilitate the analytical treatment and the application of the boundary conditions, a Conformal Transform (CT) is used to change the domain into a more suitable coordinate system, just before GITT is to be applied. First of all, using this procedure, the hydrodynamic problem of fully developed Newtonian laminar flow inside ducts is analyzed. In order to obtain the velocity field, GITT is applied on the momentum equation. Interesting hydrodynamic parameters, such as: maximum and minimum velocity values, Fanning friction and Hagenbach factors, Poiseuille number, hydrodynamic entry length, as well as pressure loss, are evaluated for several geometries. Following that, diffusive-convective problems are studied in relationship to the heat transfer in hydrodynamically fully developed and thermally non-developed Newtonian laminar flow inside ducts under Dirichlet boundary conditions, considering uniform temperature entrance profile. In order to obtain the temperature field, GITT is applied on the energy equation, evaluating the relevant parameters: bulk mean temperature, average and local Nusselt numbers and thermal entry length. The results are compared, as much as possible, with the parameter values available in the literature. / Orientador: Cassio Roberto Macedo Maia / Coorientador: Ricardo Alan Verdú Ramos / Banca: João Batista Campos Silva / Banca: Marcelo Moreira Ganzarolli / Mestre

Os trocadores de calor tubulares são muito utilizados para o processamento térmico de alimentos líquidos viscosos por possuírem um maior diâmetro hidráulico em comparação aos trocadores de calor a placas. O cálculo da letalidade neste tipo de trocador está diretamente relacionado ao perfil de velocidade e à distribuição do tempo de residência (DTR). Para escoamento laminar de fluidos viscosos, Newtonianos e não-Newtonianos, geralmente adota-se um perfil de velocidade laminar e de lei de potência, respectivamente. No entanto, algumas características do equipamento como irregularidades na tubulação, a corrugação do tubo ou as curvas podem modificar o perfil de velocidade ideal. Esse desvio da idealidade pode ser caracterizado através da determinação experimental da distribuição do tempo de residência do processo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo a determinação experimental da DTR de fluidos viscosos em um equipamento bitubular de processamento térmico e o ajuste do perfil de velocidade associado. Modelos clássicos de DTR foram ajustados aos dados, assim como foram propostos e testados novos modelos generalizados de DTR, a fim de caracterizar o escoamento laminar não ideal em tubos. A determinação da DTR experimental foi realizada para vazões entre 10 e 50 L/h utilizando água, solução de carboximeticelulose 1,0% (pseudoplástico) e mistura glicerina/água 80%. Os dados de DTR foram obtidos através de duas técnicas: condutimétrica e colorimétrica. A primeira técnica baseia-se na injeção de solução saturada de cloreto de sódio e detecção online por um condutivímetro, porém, não apresentou resultados satisfatórios mostrando que o método não é adequado para fluidos viscosos. Já a segunda técnica utilizada se baseia na injeção de corante e posterior detecção em espectrofotômetro. Os modelos que melhor se ajustaram aos dados experimentais para os três fluidos estudados foram os modelos generalizados y-laminar e exponencial. A letalidade foi calculada a partir da distribuição de temperatura no trocador de calor em estado estacionário e do tempo médio de residência obtido experimentalmente e permitiu detectar o sobreprocessamento no processo estudado. / Tubular heat exchangers are widely used for thermal processing of viscous liquid foods because they have larger hydraulic diameters than the plate heat exchangers. The calculation of lethality in this type of exchanger is directly related to velocity profile and the residence time distribution (RTD). For the laminar flow of viscous fluids, Newtonian and non-Newtonian, generally laminar and power law velocity profiles are used, respectively. However, some features of the equipment as irregularities in the pipe, the corrugation of the pipe or the presence of curves can change the ideal velocity profile. This ideality deviation can be characterized through the experimental determination of the residence time distribution of the process. The aim of this work was the experimental determination of the RTD of a viscous fluid in a bitubular thermal processing equipment and the determination of the associated velocity profile. Classic models of RTD were fitted to the data, as well as were proposed and tested new generalized models of RTD, in order to characterize the non ideal laminar flow in tubes. The experimental determination of RTD was performed to volumetric flow rates between 10 and 50 L/h using water, carboximeticelulose solution 1,0% (pseudoplastic) and glycerin/water mixture 80%. The RTD data were obtained through two techniques: conductimetric and colorimetric. The first technique is based on injection of saturated solution of sodium chloride and online detection with a conductivimeter however, unsatisfactory results showed that the method was not suitable for viscous fluids. The second technique is based on the injection of dye and subsequent detection with a spectrophotometer. The best fitted models to the experimental data for the three studied fluids were: ylaminar and exponential generalized models. The lethality was calculated from the temperature distribution in the heat exchanger at steady state and average residence time obtained experimentally and allowed the evaluation of the overprocessing of this process.

[pt] Objetivo: Uma parte significativa das reservas mundiais de petróleo é encontrada na forma de óleos pesados. Estes óleos pesados possuem alta viscosidade de 100 - 10000 cP, que torna seu transporte altamente complexo e custoso. Vários métodos foram desenvolvidos para reduzir a perda de carga de escoamentos laminares de óleos de alta viscosidade. Entre os mais utilizados, pode-se citar o bombeio de um fluido de baixa viscosidade perto da parede do tubo com o óleo viscoso sendo transportado no centro, conhecido como core-annular flow. Neste trabalho, uma alternativa ao core-annular flow é estudada. O método é baseado na utilização de micro ranhuras da parede do duto preenchidas com um liquido de baixa viscosidade. Este método tem o potencial de evitar alguns dos problemas que ocorrem no uso de core-annular flow. A análise do efeito das diferentes propriedades dos fluidos, condições de operação, geometria das ranhuras na perda de carga do escoamento foi feita através de um estudo numérico e experimental. Resultados indicam as limitações e potencialidade do uso de micro ranhuras na reduçãode perda de carga de escoamento laminar. / [en] Objective: A significant portion of the world oil reserves is found in the form of heavy oil. These oils have a high values of viscosity around 100-10000 cP, that makes their transportation complex and expensive. Several methods have been developed to reduce the pressure drop in laminar flows of high viscosity oils. Among them is the solution of pumping a liquid of lower viscosity near the pipe wall with the high viscosity oil flowing in the center. This method is known as Core-annular flow. In this work, an alternative to core-annular flow is studied. The method is based on the use of micro grooves in the pipe wall filled with a liquid of smaller viscosity. This method has the potential to elude some problems that occur with the core-annular flow method. The analysis of the drag reduction effect as a function of different fluids properties, operational conditions and geometry of the grooved walls was made using a numerical and experimental approach. Results indicate the limitations and potential of using micro grooves for drag reduction in laminar flows of high viscosity fluids.

Following stringent mandates from environmental regulatory authorities worldwide, various steps are being implemented to ensure clean combustion with minimum emissions, including fuel dilution, mild combustion and additives. Due to the need to understand combustion characteristics in primary applications (engines and turbines) with minimum emissions, the laminar burning velocity of natural gas has been measured with CO2 dilution and a wide range of blends with higher hydrocarbons. And because it has improved anti-knock quality to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE), the demand for oxygenated gasoline is now worldwide, making a compelling case for determining combustion behavior of oxygenated gasoline doped with hydrogen, ozone and carbon monoxide. The first section of this dissertation discusses dilution of methane with CO2 at elevated pressures, providing insight into comparative laminar burning characteristics in a wide range of equivalence ratios, particularly significant at elevated initial pressure. Utilizing CHEMKIN, a detailed kinetic study has been performed that explains the varying dependence on dilution ratio controlled by initial pressure. The second phase of this work reports the laminar burning velocity measurement of commercial gasoline. A TPRFE surrogate was used here to investigate burning characteristics and to provide detailed kinetic analysis of gasoline doped with additives (hydrogen, carbon monoxide and ozone). A study was also made of the behavior of gasoline with these additives in practical applications like engine and turbines. For this purpose, laminar burning velocity was measured at elevated pressures and temperatures, by varying the concentrations of synthetic EGR, and followed by measuring turbulent burning velocity at two turbulent intensities.

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1964 H99 / Master of Science

The research in this thesis was motivated by a desire to understand the mixing properties of quasi-two-dimensional flows whose time-dependence arises naturally as a result of fluid-dynamic instabilities. Additionally, we wished to study how flows such as these transition from the laminar into the turbulent regime. This thesis presents a numerical and theoretical investigation of a particular fluid dynamical system introduced by Kolmogorov. It consists of a thin layer of electrolytic fluid that is driven by the interaction of a steady current with a magnetic field produced by an array of bar magnets. First, we derive a theoretical model for the system by depth-averaging the Navier-Stokes equation, reducing it to a two-dimensional scalar evolution equation for the vertical component of vorticity. A code was then developed in order to both numerically simulate the fluid flow as well as to compute invariant solutions. As the strength of the driving force is increased, we find a number of steady, time-periodic, quasiperiodic, and chaotic flows as the fluid transitions into the turbulent regime. Through long-time advection of a large number of passive tracers, the mixing properties of the various flows that we found were studied. Specifically, the mixing was quantified by computing the relative size of the mixed region as well as the mixing rate. We found the mixing efficiency of the flow to be a non-monotonic function of the driving current and that significant changes in the flow did not always lead to comparable changes in its transport properties. However, some very subtle changes in the flow dramatically altered the degree of mixing. Using the theory of chaos as it applies to Hamiltonian systems, we were able to explain many of our results.

An experimental study was conducted using axisymmetric co-flow laminar diffusion flames of methane-air, methane-oxygen and ethylene-air to examine the effect of pressure on soot formation and the structure of the temperature field. A liquid fuel burner was designed and built to observe the sooting behavior of methanol-air and n-heptane-air laminar diffusion flames at elevated pressures up to 50 atm. A non-intrusive, line-of-sight spectral soot emission (SSE) diagnostic technique was used to determine the temperature and the soot volume fraction of methane-air flames up to 60 atm, methane-oxygen flames up to 90 atm and ethylene-air flames up to 35 atm. The physical flame structure of the methane-air and methane-oxygen diffusion flames were characterized over the pressure range of 10 to 100 atm and up to 35 atm for ethylene-air flames. The flame height, marked by the visible soot radiation emission, remained relatively constant for methane-air and ethylene-air flames over their respected pressure ranges, while the visible flame height for the methane-oxygen flames was reduced by over 50 % between 10 and 100 atm. During methane-air experiments, observations of anomalous occurrence of liquid material formation at 60 atm and above were recorded. The maximum conversion of the carbon in the fuel to soot exhibited a strong power-law dependence on pressure. At pressures 10 to 30 atm, the pressure exponent is approximately 0.73 for methane-air flames. At higher pressures, between 30 and 60 atm, the pressure exponent is approximately 0.33. The maximum fuel carbon conversion to soot is 12.6 % at 60 atm. For methane-oxygen flames, the pressure exponent is approximately 1.2 for pressures between 10 and 40 atm. At pressures between 50 and 70 atm, the pressure exponent is about -3.8 and approximately -12 for 70 to 90 atm. The maximum fuel carbon conversion to soot is 2 % at 40 atm. For ethylene-air flames, the pressure exponent is approximately 1.4 between 10 and 30 atm. The maximum carbon conversion to soot is approximately 6.5 % at 30 atm and remained constant at higher pressures.

A full three dimensional computational study was carried out using a finite-volume based solver for analyzing the performance of pin-fin based micro/meso scale heat exchangers with air as the working fluid. A staggered arrangement of cylindrical pin fins in rectangular channel geometry was used. Various configurations were considered consistent with a parallel experimental study being conducted based on a micro-wind tunnel setup. The pin/channel height used was 0.4 mm, and the pin diameters varied from 0.17-0.50 mm to give hydraulic diameters in the range of 0.13-0.78 mm. This gave volumetric area densities for the heat exchangers in the range of 5-15 mm2/mm3. Various heat exchanger configurations were simulated to determine performance characteristics such as the Nusselt number, friction factor, specific fluid friction power and Mach number in the Reynolds number regime for laminar flows. In addition a detailed numerical diagnosis was carried out to determine local behavior on the pin surfaces, end walls, etc to identify specific characteristics such as regions of high and low heat transfer, locations for possible shock formation, etc. The range of results obtained would be useful for future design of micro heat exchangers for use in small footprint, high heat flux dissipation applications like turbine blade and microelectronic systems.