published_or_final_version / Urban Planning and Environmental Management / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

The conversion of natural landscapes for human use over the past century has led to significant ecological consequences. By clearing tropical forests, intensifying agriculture and expanding urban centers, human actions have transformed local, regional and global hydrology. Urban landscapes, designed and built atop impervious surfaces, inhibit the natural infiltration of rainfall into the subsurface. Deforestation, driven by the demand for natural resources and food production, alters river flow and regional climate. These land cover changes have manifested into a number of water management challenges, from the city to the watershed scale, and motivated investment into landscape re-greening programs. This movement has prompted the need for monitoring, evaluation and prediction of the hydrological benefits of re-greening. The research presented in this dissertation assesses the contribution of different re-greening strategies to water resources management, from multiple scales. Specifically, re-greening at the city scale is investigated through the study of vegetated rooftops (green roofs) in a dense urban environment. Re-greening at the watershed scale is investigated through the study of forest regeneration on deforested and ecologically degraded land in the tropics. First, the benefits of city re-greening for urban water management are investigated through monitoring and modeling the hydrological behavior of a number of green roofs in New York City (NYC). Influence of green roof size and rainfall characteristics on a green roof’s ability to retain/ detain rainwater are explored and the ability of a soil infiltration model to predict green roof hydrology is assessed. Findings from this work present insight regarding green roof design optimization, which has utility for scientific researchers, architects, and engineers. Next, a cost effective tool is developed that can be used to evaluate green roof hydrologic performance, citywide. This tool, termed the Soil Water Apportioning Method (SWAM), generates green roof runoff and evapotranspiration based on minimally measured parameters. SWAM is validated using measured runoff from three extensive green roofs in NYC. Additional to green roofs, there is potential for SWAM to be used in the hydrologic performance evaluation of other types of green infrastructure, making SWAM a relevant tool for city planners and agencies as well as for researchers from various disciplines of study. Finally, the impact of degraded landscape re-greening is investigated using a case study of 15 watersheds in Puerto Rico that have experienced extensive reforestation. The study provides evidence of improved soil conditions following reforestation, which in effect positively impacts streamflow generation processes. Findings from this work fill a gap in knowledge regarding the hydrological benefits of forest regeneration in mesoscale watersheds and provide guidance for future investment into reforestation programs. Land cover will inevitably continue to change to meet the needs of a growing and increasingly urban population. Yet there is potential to offset some of the ecological effects – especially those on hydrology – that result from land cover change. As a whole, this dissertation aims to contribute knowledge that can be used to make the re-greening of altered landscapes more realizable.

This study determines and predicts multi-temporal Land-Use-Land-Cover Change (LULC) in a peripheral urban landscape over a 22 year period in relation to the study area‘s greenery. A change detection analysis using post classification Maximum Likelihood algorithm on three multispectral SPOT-4 images was used to determine land-cover transformation. To predict future land coverage, a Land-Cover Change Modeler (LCM) and a Markov Chain were used. Results show that between the year 2000-2006, 2006-2011 and 2000-2011 the study area experienced varied changes in the different LULCs. Built-up areas increased by 10.08%, 3.15% and 13.23% in 2000-2006, 2006-2011, and 2000-2011 respectively. Areas covered by thicket decreased by 0.59% in 2000-2006 but increased by 0.56%, 0.07% in 2006-2011 and 2000-2011 respectively. Forest land-cover increased by 2.59% in 2000-2006, 2.82% in 2006-2011, and 5.41% in 2000-2011. Grassland declined by 8.46% and 2.64% in 2000-2006 and 2000-2011 respectively while degraded grassland declined by 3.62%, 12.45% and 16.07% in 2000-2006, 2006-2011, and 2000-2011 respectively. Projection results indicate a consistent pattern of growth or decline to those experienced between 2000-2011. This study provides insight into LULC patterns within the eThekwini metro area and offers invaluable understanding of the transformation of the urban green spaces. Key words: Land-Use-Land-Cover Change, Change detection, Land-Cover Change Modeler, Markov Chain Process, Land-Cover Change Prediction. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

Bibliography: leaves 87-91. / This dissertation aims to evaluate the environmental factors within the Liesbeeck and Black River Confluence Area (CA) and on that basis present conclusions which will inform a land-use decision for the area. It has been undertaken in partial fulfilment of the academic requirements of the M. Phil (Environmental Science) course offered by the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science of the University of Cape Town (UCT). It also serves as a working document informing the Cape Town City Council's (CCC) land-use planning for the CA, and for that reason aims for a balance between academic rigour and the concise, pragmatic style of a report. It should also be noted that this study is almost wholly contingent on a baseline document prepared between January and March 1994 by the 1993/94 M. Phil class. That document identified the totality of environmental factors which might influence land-use planning in the CA and is the point of departure of this dissertation.

Much of the sustainable community planning and design discourse has been about prescribing and defining ends. A large gap exists between goals for sustainability and the ways and means to achieve them. Multiple barriers are encountered when implementation attempts are made. The research addresses the question: In what ways can demonstration projects increase social learning of effective planning, design and policy alternatives that assist in developing sustainable urban communities? Demonstration here is an area based, site specific planning and design process and built project showing potential adopters the benefits of employing various innovations. Five fields of scholarship and research (land-use and sustainable development; planning and design participation; urban experimentation and demonstration; innovation, diffusion and social learning; action for innovation and implementation) are drawn upon to inform the objectives. An analytical-evaluative framework for sustainable planning and design is developed, then applied in a detailed case study. The case study of Egebjerggard, a 928 dwelling, mixed use neighbourhood in Ballerup, Denmark provides an analysis of how leading practice can contribute to a better understanding of the potentials and challenges for advancing community policy, design and implementation at the neighbourhood and city-wide level. The analysis enables the interpretation of the Ballerup experience and the transfer of principles to the Canadian context. Two initiatives in sustainable community development in Calgary and Vancouver indicate the issues, opportunities and the state of practice. A proposed demonstration strategy outlines possible new institutional and organizational capacities and relationships in the Canadian residential planning and delivery system. The main contributions include: i) an empirical and descriptive-analytical case study providing a detailed account of integrated planning implementation and policy development in Denmark, ii) a strategy, its structure, organization and functions to carry out demonstration / exhibition in Canadian municipalities, iii) a normative proposition for and the evidence to support an expanded notion of demonstration directing attention to their value and potential. The benefits and returns outlined serve as a general argument for proceeding with a neighbourhood scale fully featured demonstration in any city in Canada.

Much of the sustainable community planning and design discourse has been about prescribing and defining ends. A large gap exists between goals for sustainability and the ways and means to achieve them. Multiple barriers are encountered when implementation attempts are made. The research addresses the question: In what ways can demonstration projects increase social learning of effective planning, design and policy alternatives that assist in developing sustainable urban communities? Demonstration here is an area based, site specific planning and design process and built project showing potential adopters the benefits of employing various innovations. Five fields of scholarship and research (land-use and sustainable development; planning and design participation; urban experimentation and demonstration; innovation, diffusion and social learning; action for innovation and implementation) are drawn upon to inform the objectives. An analytical-evaluative framework for sustainable planning and design is developed, then applied in a detailed case study. The case study of Egebjerggard, a 928 dwelling, mixed use neighbourhood in Ballerup, Denmark provides an analysis of how leading practice can contribute to a better understanding of the potentials and challenges for advancing community policy, design and implementation at the neighbourhood and city-wide level. The analysis enables the interpretation of the Ballerup experience and the transfer of principles to the Canadian context. Two initiatives in sustainable community development in Calgary and Vancouver indicate the issues, opportunities and the state of practice. A proposed demonstration strategy outlines possible new institutional and organizational capacities and relationships in the Canadian residential planning and delivery system. The main contributions include: i) an empirical and descriptive-analytical case study providing a detailed account of integrated planning implementation and policy development in Denmark, ii) a strategy, its structure, organization and functions to carry out demonstration / exhibition in Canadian municipalities, iii) a normative proposition for and the evidence to support an expanded notion of demonstration directing attention to their value and potential. The benefits and returns outlined serve as a general argument for proceeding with a neighbourhood scale fully featured demonstration in any city in Canada. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Bibliography: leaves 69-72. / This study investigated the land-use potential of the Liesbeeck-Black River confluence area . It is intended to serve as a guide to land-use planners and other interested parties concerning the opportunities and constraints proffered by the environment on the confluence area. The collecting of baseline data was undertaken by nine Masters Students in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town. Each student then analysed the data individually. The study was undertaken in part fulfilment of the academic requirements of the Masters Degree. The Liesbeeck-Black River confluence area (hereafter called the study area) is located approximately 5.5 km east of the CBD of Cape Town. It covers approximately 232 ha and is bounded by the N2 Freeway to the South, Alexandra Road to the East, Liesbeeck Parkway to the West and the Culemborg-Black River Railway Yard to the North. The aim of the study was twofold, firstly to determine a procedure whereby the optimal land- use alternative for an area could be determined, taking into account the effects of significant environmental elements, and secondly to analyse and determine the optimal land-use alternative for the study area specifically. The procedure developed during the research is an adaptation of the Leopold Matrix method of analysis. The environmental elements characteristic of the study area are listed on the horizontal axis, and the land-use options to be analysed on the vertical axis. The magnitude and significance of the effect of an environmental element on a particular type of land-use can then be rated and this rating entered in the corresponding matrix cell. By adding the ratings of all environmental elements on each land-use option, the overall rating of the different land-use options can be obtained. The option with the highest overall (positive) rating is then considered to be the optimal type of land-use. This method was then applied to assess the land-use potential of the study area. The land-use options considered to be appropriate for the study area were determined by considering only those types of land-uses for which a regional need had previously been established.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Plankenbrug River runs past the dense settlement of Kayamandi, on the outskirts of Stellenbosch. This site was chosen to study the impact of water pollution from formal and informal urban developments on water quality and associated health factors. Aims of the study: (1) To determine some basic epidemiological characteristics of the exposed population of Kayamandi, their sanitation problems and reasons for poor hygiene; (2) To determine the microbiological and chemical pollution load patterns in the Plankenbrug River over time; (3) To investigate the spectrum of organisms present in the river (other than the indicator E. coli) and their epidemiological implications for health; (4) To establish the possible presence of organisms resistant to chlorine or to antibiotics in the river below Kayamandi as indicators of environmental hazard. Methods: During the period 5 May 1998 to 10 February 2003 microbiological and chemical analyses have been carried out every 6 weeks on water samples obtained at various points along the Plankenbrug River. Two large surveys (n=2196 persons and n=3568 persons) of the community of Kayamandi have been undertaken and door-to-door education campaigns were carried out with the aid of trained community health workers. Results: Below Kayamandi the river contains dangerously high levels of faecal contamination and it constitutes a health hazard to all persons coming into contact with the water. Up to 13 million Escherichia coli per 100 ml water was recorded (cut-off level as indicator of human safety is 1000 organisms per 100 ml water). Not all the faecal contamination originated from Kayamandi. Substantial amounts of faecal contamination sporadically entered the river at different points below Kayamandi. The pollution load resulting from these intrusions were sometimes larger than that contributed by the whole of Kayamandi. Water samples below Kayamandi were screened to ascertain what other pathogens were present. Amongst the organisms were 0 haemolytic Streptococcus Group A and B, Mycobacterium intracellulare, Staphylococcus spp, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp. and many others. The list of pathogens found had such serious implications that a confidential health warning was sent out to health care centres and other affected organisations in the area. |3 haemolytic Streptococcus Group A has never before been reported as isolated in viable form from free-flowing natural waters. Signs of increased resistance to chorine were found in organisms isolated from the river water. There were also organisms showing signs of resistance to commonly used antibiotics. The E. coli organisms that survived various levels of chlorine treatment also showed increased resistance to amoxycillin when compared to untreated E. coli organisms sampled from the Plankenbrug River. During the community phase of the project in Kayamandi a reduction in the pollution levels occurred over the summers of 2000 and 2001 (note that "improved" does not yet mean "safe" by any means). This can be ascribed to the multi-pronged approach of the project. Attention was given to service and repair of sanitation facilities, a strong accent on door-todoor community education about better sanitation behaviour, creation of a central reporting point for blockages and breakages, and training of artisans (plumbers, bricklayers, etc) from the community to help with upkeep. The community showed encouraging signs of wanting better sanitation education. The improvement in pollution levels is however in danger of reverting back to the previous dangerous situation if better support and co-operation cannot be obtained from the relevant authorities. There were 16.9% of households who reported one or more cases of diarrhoea during the survey period (5 weeks) - a very high prevalence seeing that the survey was carried out during a wet and cold winter period. Conclusions: Active planning and other steps to cope with the sewage intrusions into the river should be instituted without delay. The water quality of the Plankenbrug River downstream from Kayamandi is extremely poor. The water constitutes a serious health hazard and a threat to downstream economic activities. The settlement of Kayamandi demonstrated that education, when coupled with maintenance and repairs of existing toilet facilities, can bring about a reduction in pollution loads, but that this should be an ongoing process and not be reduced to sporadic attempts. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Plankenbrug Rivier vloei verby die digbewoonde nedersetting van Kayamandi aan die buitewyke van Stellenbosch. Hierdie plek is gekies as studie-area om die impak te bestudeer van waterbesoedeling wat van formele en informele dorpsontwikkeling afkomstig is, asook die geassosieerde gesondheidsfaktore. Doel van die studie: (1) Om sommige basiese epidemiologiese eienskappe van die blootgestelde populasie, hulle sanitasieprobleme en redes vir die swak higiene te bepaal; (2) Om die mikrobiologiese en chemiese besoedelingspatrone in die Plankenbrug Rivier oor tyd te bepaal; (3) Om die spektrum van organismes teenwoordig in die rivier (anders as E. coli) te bepaal asook hulle epidemiologiese implikasies op gesondheid; (4) Om vas te stel, as indikatore van omgewingsgevaar, of daar moontlik organismes teenwoordig is wat weerstandig is teen chloriene en antibiotika in die rivier onder Kayamandi. Metodes: Gedurende die afgelope vier jaar is mikrobiologiese en chemiese ontledings elke 6 weke uitgevoer van watermonsters wat van verskeie punte op die Palnkenbrug Rivier verkry is. Twee groot opnames is in die gemeenskap van Kayamandi ondemeem (n=2196 persone en n=3568 persone) en deur-tot-deur opvoedingsveldtogte is uitgevoer met die hulp van plaaslik opgeleide gemeenskapsgesondheidswerkers. Resultate: Onder Kayamandi bevat die rivier gevaarlike vlakke van fekale besoedeling en dit hou gesondheidsgevare in vir alle persone war daarmee in aanraking kom. Op tot 13 miljoen Escherichia coli per 100 ml water is genoteer (boonste grens van veiligheid vir die mens is 1000 organismes per 100 ml water). Nie al die fekale kontaminasie is afkomstig van Kayamandi nie. Substansiele hoeveelhede kontaminasie dring die rivier binne op verskillende punte ver onder Kayamandi. Hierdie besoedelingslading is soms groter as wat van die hele Kayamandi afkomstig is. Watermonsters geneem onder Kayamandi is ondersoek om vas te stel watter ander siekteveroorsakende organismes ook teenwoordig was. Onder die organismes gevind was (3 hemolitiese Streptococcus Groep A en B, Mycobacterium intracellulare, Staphylococcus spp., Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp. en baie ander. Die lys van patogene wat gevind is, het sulke emstige implikasies dat 'n vertroulike gesondheidswaarskuwing uitgestuur is na gesondheidsdienspunte en ander geaffekteerde organisasies in die gebied. (3 hemolitiese Streptococcus Groep B is nog nie vantevore aangemeld as lewensvatbaar geisoleer uit vryvloeiende natuurlike waters nie. Tekens is gevind dat daar organismes in die rivier voorkom wat weerstandig is teen chloorbehandeling en ook teen algemeen gebruikte antibiotika. Die E. coli organisme wat verskillende konsentrasies van chloorbehandeling oorleeef het, het ook verhoogde weerstand teen amoksisilien getoon wanneer hulle vergelyk was met onbehandelde E. coli organisme wat van die Plankenbrug Rivier gemonster was. Gedurende die gemeenskapsfase van die projek is daar 'n verlaging van besoedelingsvlakke in die rivier gevind gedurende die somers van 2000 en 2001 (let op dat "verbetering" hier nog glad nie "veilig" beteken nie). Dit kan toegeskryf word aan die veelvlakkige benadering wat die projek gevolg het. Aandag is geskenk aan diens en herstel van sanitasiegeriewe met 'n sterk klem op deur-tot-deur opvoedingsveldtogte met die oog op beter sanitasiegedrag, skepping van 'n sentrale aanmeldpunt vir blokkasies en brekasies, en opleiding van ambagslui (loodgieters, messelaars, ens) uit die gemeenskap om te help met onderhoud. Die gemeenskap het bemoedigende tekens getoon dat hulle beter sanitasie opvoeding verlang. Die verbetering in die besoedelingsvlakke in die rivier loop egter gevaar om terug te val na die vorige gevaarlike vlakke as daar nie beter ondersteuning en samewerking van die onderhawige owerhede verkry kan word nie. Daar was 16.9% van huishoudings wat een of meer gevalle van diarree aangemeld het gedurende die 5 weke van die opnameperiode - 'n baie hoe prevalensie siende dat die opname uitgevoer was gedurende 'n nat en koue winterperiode. Gevolgtrekkings: Aktiewe beplanning en ander stappe om die riool-indringing in die rivier die hoof te bied is gebiedend noodsaaklik en behoort sonder versuim ingestel te word. Die waterkwaliteit van die Plankenbrug Rivier stroomaf van Kayamandi is baie swak. Die water hou emstige gesondheidsgevare in en is ook 'n bedreiging vir die ekonomiese aktiwiteite stroomaf. Die nedersetting van Kayamandi demonstreer ook dat opvoeding, wanneer gekoppel aan onderhoud en herstel van bestaande toiletgeriewe in verlaging teweeg kan bring van besoedelingsvlakke, maar dat dit 'n voortgesette program moet wees en nie net sporadiese pogings nie.

The recent financial crisis which has beset the United States has made itself felt in a number of ways, not the least of which has been its adverse effect on the housing market. As foreclosure percentages accelerated, increasing numbers of properties across the country became empty and abandoned, leaving a visible imprint of deterioration in neighborhoods that were significantly affected. Initial GIS analysis of both foreclosed and non-foreclosed residential land in Broward County Florida was conducted, showing that there is a discernible spectral difference in the lawn space of these two types of properties, with foreclosed properties exhibiting more brownness, or loss of green space. In order to evaluate whether or not this visible deterioration has had an effect on residents left behind in areas of foreclosure and their own habits, 950 mail-in surveys were distributed throughout 19 different census tracts in Broward County, inquiring about demographics, surrounding foreclosures, degrees of concern for home value and appearance, and changes in lawn maintenance since the foreclosure crisis along with reasons for such change if such exists. Data received from respondents was then analyzed in order to identify any attributes or correlations which might contribute to further neighborhood change, and how any of these factors might be affecting attitudes or perceptions of those left behind, as well as their lawn maintenance habits. / by Cindy M. Shaw. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2013. / Includes bibliography. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / System requirements: Adobe Reader.