Error Analysis has been widely used in studies of second language learning. At the same time, foreign language learning (as opposed to teaching), has largely been ignored as an object of research. The research had three major aims: to examine the potential of Error Analysis in foreign language learning by the development and trialling of a complex new coding schedule for analysing learner errors in French; to provide some descriptive data on the written errors and performance of foreign language pupils over a complete scholastic year; and to explore the nature of foreign language learning strategies used by the pupils studied. The thesis opens with a statement of purpose and method. This is followed by a short discussion of theories, topics and techniques in second and foreign language learning. The development of two forms of the coding schedule used to analyse errors is described and discussed. Recode checks and the development of 'Coding Confidence Levels' are presented. Procedures used in a longitudinal study of errors are then described. This study acted as an important trial for the coding schedules, known as Foreign Language Error Analysis: French (FLEAF). All written French produced by eight pupils in the same school class was collected over the 1978 New Zealand school year (February to December). The group were in their second year of high school French and had an average age of 14 years 5 months midway through the study. Background information is given about the subjects, including results of selected IEA French (Population II) tests administered during the year. Some description of the year's work is given, followed by general and case study analyses of errors. Selected results from both the longer (FLEAF-L) and shorter (FLEAF-S) coding schedules are then tabulated and discussed. Particular attention is paid to variables coding possible explanations for errors. Detailed analyses of errors in word order, negation and gender are offered, along with a review of correct performances for selected aspects. These analyses lead to two preliminary hypotheses which could in part explain the occurrence of errors. One hypothesis relates to the frequency with which pupils had been required to focus through drills on the point at issue, the other to the number of choices available to the pupil at the time of error. Discussion of Error Analysis and pupil strategies is then presented. It is concluded that Error Analysis has a valid role in developing hypotheses for a theory of foreign language learning. Five such hypotheses, suggested by the longitudinal study, are presented. It is argued that these five could all be classified on one of a proposed five levels of 'Operating Procedures' (McLaughlin, 1978a). Selection of a unique cluster of operating procedures would constitute the learning/performance 'strategy' of a particular pupil. These notions are incorporated into a tentative framework for a theory of foreign language learning. A modified 'Principle of Least Effort' (Zipf, 1965), is suggested as a key factor in the early stages of learning a foreign language, and ideas for subsequent research are proposed. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

The Apostolic Fathers is the name given to the body of literature, written in Greek, which dates from immediately after the New Testament period. The works cover the last decade of the 1st century AD, and the first half of the second century. They give a varied picture of the moral and doctrinal state of the early Christian Church in a period characterised by constant threat of persecution and martyrdom on the one hand, and growth in theological and ethical understanding on the other. The works considered in this thesis are the genuine letters of Ignatius; the Shepherd of Hermas; the Epistle of Barnabas and the Didache; the letter to Diognetus; the Clementine Homily (commonly called II Clement); the letters of Polycarp to the Philippians and the Martyrdom of Polycarp. The study begins with an essay on the development of the language of faith. This traces the use of the pistis group from Homer to the New Testament, and shows how the Homeric and Classical Greek usages were taken by the Septuagint and applied in a religious context to God and salvation, and how this process was further developed in the New Testament into a full-blown technical vocabulary of faith. The Apostolic Fathers take this process a step further, and there is a broadening of the meanings of the cognates, together with resultant changes in the linguistic usage. All the occurrences of pistis and its cognates in the Apostolic Fathers are examined in detail. In each case there is comment of the meaning of the words within the wider context in which they are set in each work. The Greek is given, together with a translation, and obscure passages are elucidated.

In the last two decades there has been a significant shift in Bible translation, away from the approach developed by Eugene A. Nida of the United Bible Societies. The practice of Bible translation in the modern era was greatly influenced by Nida, and still is to a great extent. His ‘functional equivalence’ approach to translation gave priority to communicating the meaning of the text instead of merely retaining the form. His approach also included testing the translation to ensure that average readers understood the meaning. Nida’s approach was expanded upon by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) into what is known as the ‘meaning-based’ approach. The difference between it and the functional equivalence approach is mainly one of degree, with the meaningbased approach being freer in several respects than Nida’s approach. However, there has been a movement away from Nida (as well as SIL’s meaning-based approach) among many Bible translators. The reasons for this shift are varied, although one major influence has been the growing awareness that the language communities who are the recipients of these translations should have a major part in deciding what kind of translation will be prepared. Such communities often prefer more literal translations. Yet they are seldom given the background information they need to make an informed decision about what approach is appropriate for them, partly because no studies exist which document the objective evaluation and comparison of different approaches to translation of the Bible. This thesis documents actual testing of three types of translation in the Thai language to determine which one most clearly communicates the meaning of the Bible. It was found that the meaning-based translation communicated most clearly for some stories that were tested, the functional equivalence translation achieved the second best results, and a semi-literal translation had the most significant communication problems. The findings also provide dramatic evidence about the limits any translation of the Bible has for people who have never heard its message before. This thesis also describes a new kind of testing of translation quality which the author developed in order to objectively compare different translations in Thai. Subjects were asked to read translated passages and then take a written multiple-choice test about the meaning of the translation. This new kind of testing has several advantages over the kind of testing in general use by most Bible translators.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / This PhD thesis explores the Aotearoa / New Zealand influence in the post-World War II writing of English author, Anna Kavan. In response to her provocatively worded 1943 Horizon-published article on the socio-cultural features of that country, I sought evidence of the source of her apparent disdain. Imperialist in tone and disparaging of the post-colonial Other, the article contributed to the reflective dialectic of national identity of her temporary home. The discovery of unpublished and not previously discussed short stories, written during Kavan’s stay in Aotearoa / New Zealand, revealed a contrarily positive perspective, and offered an anomalous body of material that illuminate the early wartime experiences of the residents of Auckland's North Shore. Comparison between the stories in the manuscript and work published by Kavan since World War II exposed the compellingly autobiographical nature of her writing. This revelation was underscored by a second discovery, that of a previously-unseen cache of correspondence, letters sent from Kavan to her Aotearoa / New Zealand lover, the conscientious objector and author, Walter [Ian] Hamilton. The letters, unpublished short stories, and published work, collectively manifest an intertextuality which reinforces their status as autobiographical. Close analysis has determined that much of Kavan's 'fiction’ is in fact thinly disguised life-writing, a construct which would otherwise be unnoticed, in the absence of back-grounding evidence. This thesis further proves Kavan's authorial appropriation of thematic aspects of the Aotearoa / New Zealand vocabulary, geography, and historical aesthetic. The thesis also corrects extant inaccurate biographical material, particularly with respect to the years 1939 - 1943. Discovery of a small collection of photographs, featuring Kavan in a New Zealand context, has added impetus to the move to install her as a transient constituent on the continuum of New Zealand literature.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / The present work is a detailed study of the Gurnemanz Episode in Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival. Its main body encompasses a commentary on the Gurnemanz episode of Wolfram’s work. The intention of the commentary is o provide exact and comprehensive information and discussion on aspects of the text that could cause the reader difficulty, or to enhance his/ her appreciation of the text and the context in which it had its genesis. The commentary follows the principle of analysing from large to small. The largest section encompasses a chapter of the thesis, the smallest an individual word. Each of the five chapters is introduced by a literary interpretation which encompasses, among other aspects such as themes, motifs, plot and character development, structure, and a comparison between Wolfram’s text and that of his source, Chrétien de Troyes’s Perceval. Then a closer examination of smaller units of the text takes place. This includes principally the analysis of Wolfram's use of language and his style. The commentary is introduced by a discussion of the commentary form and the theoretical basis which this work follows, and concluded by a short evaluation. All important secondary literature which appeared before 1997 and was available to the author has been considered for this work. Furthermore, this thesis is appended with an article in German that deals with the possibility of reading Parzival 652,10 and 173,3 with the less favoured MS G readings. This article bears the fruit of the discussion needed to comment on the MS G reading at 173,3, and is soon to be published in the periodical Euphorion. A fold-out copy of the Parzival text for each chapter is found inside the back cover.

Surrealism is dead. At any rate, that is the conclusion one might be tempted to draw in England. In France and America interest in the movement has been kept alive by intermittent discussion; but in England this has not been the case. In the latter country, little critical thought has been applied to the subject, apparently, since the middle of the thirties. This present thesis constitutes an attempt to fill the gap. In examining surrealism both before and after its overt eclat in England, I hope to put it into meaningful historical perspective ; this may help in arriving at the essence of the overt, by penetrating the sensationalism that has hitherto tended to obscure it.

This thesis is a literary biography. It incorporates material that is often outside the scope of scholarly or academic writing: the detail of an individual's day-to-day life. It also spans several disciplines: the fine arts, their history and theory, literary history and criticism, ecology, philosophy, classical music and general history. The discussion involved these because the biographical subject had an active interest at times an active involvement in them. There has been an attempt to follow through themes and patterns that were enduring in the life of A.R.D. Fairburn. He is shown as a man who saw the world in vitalistic and metaphysical terms, rather than in terms of their opposites – mechanism and materialism. These views he represented consistently in a secular society that had a predominantly scientific world view. He is treated as a Romantic/Modernist where his poetry is discussed, and as a pivotal figure in New Zealand's literary history; one who helped make the transition from Victorian, Edwardian and Georgian poetic idioms to those of a regional Modernism, within which he developed a unique style. The biography has implicit in it an 'argument', though not one that is developed in an abstract way: namely that Fairburn, his grandfather Edwin and his great-grandfather, William, were peculiarly representative figures in our history. Their active New Zealand presence lasts from l8l9-1957. Two of them played direct roles in establishing a settler culture here; the third was acutely aware of the tensions and contradictions of that culture. Though A.R.D. and Edwin Fairburn were eccentric in the social milieu of New Zealand, their lives touched it in so many ways that they, along with their missionary forebear, William Thomas Fairburn, are personifications in an historical narrative. The line of their lives traces much in the history of the country since the early nineteenth century. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

"'The English of this wildernesse': aspects of early New England's literary inheritance, as illustrated by the works of Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor." Since the late 1920's, the literature of early New England has been increasingly studied in the context of the development of American history, literature, and mythology. Without denying the usefulness of such a context, I want to redress the balance by setting selected aspects of two writers in particular, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor, in the context of their English origins, and to study them specifically as English provincial writers who exemplify the important phenomenon of cultural lag in a community distant from but crucially attached to a changing metropolitan culture. Part of the originality of my approach is the new look I give to the implications of colonial and provincial literature. Chapter one outlines a detailed historical and critical context for my study. As well, I discuss some of the roots and presuppositions of modern literary scholarship of Early New England, and using T. S. Eliot's distinction between "aesthetic" and "merely historical" criticism, I stress the need for an evaluative context for the early New England poets to complement any discussion of historical perspective. In my second chapter, I tackle crucial and inadequately examined aspects of the influence of Puritanism on New England poetry, concentrating especially on the theological distrust of the imagination and (especially important for Taylor) the literary implications of eucharistic theology. Having developed the major strands of my approach, I then turn to Bradstreet (chapters three to six) and Taylor (chapters seven to nine). Chapter three discusses Anne Bradstreet in the context of Renaissance attitudes to women, in order to show what expectations and possibilities existed for a woman in her position to write poetry. Chapters four and five gradually move from an historical to an evaluative perspective - chapter four to deal with her public poetry, chapter five with her domestic verse and chapter six, her religious poetry. Chapters seven to nine are devoted to selected aspects of Taylor's work. Chapter seven attempts to make a new evaluation of his contribution to the Metaphysical literary tradition; chapter eight explores the implications of his religious beliefs for his poetic practices and especially his constant sense of literary inadequacy. In chapter nine, the crucial question of the relative importance of "historical" and "critical" contexts is again faced as I look at Taylor's poems on the Canticles, not in order to examine his sources, but rather to show the ways in which his poetical imagination responded to and transformed his sources. There is a brief concluding chapter. Throughout the study, I have responded to the great amount of critical and scholarly work done in recent years, and I have therefore concentrated on particular aspects of the topic which, if in no case providing me with totally untouched territory to map, at least have offered the chance of meaningful and original exploration. I also hope that I am offering my explorations within an original and provoking cultural and critical context.

Hardy’s visual imagery reveals both the eye of the draughtsman and the eye of the artist. His style ranges from awkward pedantries to flowing poetic beauty. This PhD thesis first examines the eccentric scientific imagery, and then the more sustained poetic visual themes such as the ‘near’ and ‘far’ view, or the use of light and shade. Hardy’s reference to paintings, etchings and sculptures is examined in detail, with illustrations provided throughout the text. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

Charles Robert Maturin (1780-1824) produced a substantial body of writing that included six novels, three plays, and two collections of sermons. Despite the large audience he reached in his own time, and the interest he aroused in a number of later poets and novelists, Maturin's work has not received very much serious attention from critics. The present study attempts to take a fresh look at all Maturin's work, exploring it sympathetically from a variety of directions. Melmoth is included, but because it has dominated previous discussion of Maturin, I have chosen to concentrate on his neglected novels, Fatal Revenge, The Wild Irish Boy, The Milesian Chief, Women, or Pour et Contre, and The Albigenses. Special attention is given here to Maturin's two volumes of sermons (a valuable but seldom used source of information about his religious philosophy) and, more generally, to the theme of religion, which links many of his novels. This aspect of Gothic literature deserves a closer study than it usually receives, particularly in the work of Maturin who was a minister of religion. My thesis proposes a new interpretation of Fatal Revenge based on the parallel that Maturin developed between the use of superstition by Orazio and its use by the Catholic church. In The Albigenses there is a similar parallel between the outlaws and the supposedly holy Crusaders. Maturin took the Catholic church so often as his subject, not simply because it provided a colourful, stereotyped background (as some have suggested), but because it was a context in which he could seriously investigate the psychological pressures that produced (and still produce) conformity, extremism, and sexual violence. While his studies of oppressive societies may at times remind us of twentieth-century works such as 1984 or The Trial, Maturin's fiction is very much a part of its age. After a chapter that explores the history of 'the Gothic', my thesis focuses on the particular context of Maturin's period, mapping it initially by examining the responses to his work that appeared in print during his lifetime. Those reviews and essays make visible the complex field of forces in which Maturin worked. The Gothic novel developed in an age of more than usual ferment - literary, religious, and political - including the first phase of what we would today describe as feminist rebellion. All this was accompanied, as we can see from the criticism, by a strong conservative reaction in defence of the threatened values. The present study emphasizes the ways in which Maturin's work shared the new energies associated with change, even though it also displayed signs of ambivalence. I consider the reasons for this ambivalence and argue that in many cases there is subtlety in what appears at first to be confusion. Maturin's fiction was a late addition to the Gothic tradition, but its particular kinds of complexity - such as its psychological depth - made it an important development of the genre and linked it with other innovative writing of the period. Some admirers of Maturin have sought to play down the Gothic element in his work, which is understandable in view of the low esteem in which the genre has been held. The Gothic has often been seen, for example, as a confused rehearsal for Romanticism. While acknowledging the variety of Maturin's novels, I have sought to emphasise their continuing links with the Gothic genre and its special energies. During the past decade, new forms of Gothic criticism have appeared that treat the subject with greater seriousness. Today, interest in the Gothic genre seems to be springing to life again, and its relevance to our own time (which is also a period of complex social change and widespread ambivalence) has become clearer. I have attempted to contribute to this new type of criticism by pointing out the value of Maturin's studies of oppression and his ability to go beyond stereotypes in his treatment of women characters. I have also suggested some links between Gothic literature and feminist science-fiction writing today. In general, the aim of this thesis has been to consider the most mature Gothic fiction (such as that of Maturin) not merely as fantasy but as an expanded vision of reality. / Note: Thesis now published. Dunsford, C (2007). Painting life in extremes Charles Maturin and the Gothic genre. NZ: Global Dialogues Press. ISBN 9780968245340