Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Moving to a new country often involves exposing oneself to new languages and cultures. Many individuals who move to another country and acquire a new language are sometimes at risk of losing the language of their country of origin. Studies in first language (L1) loss aim to describe what happens in an individual’s L1 when he/she moves away or disconnects from its source as well as to explain which linguistic aspects change and why. The aim of this research paper is to investigate lexical proficiency in L1 German bilingual speakers residing in the Western Cape. Lexical data were elicited through a Verbal Fluency Task (VFT) and a Picture Naming Task (PNT). Particularly, the paper assesses the extent to which degree of German L1 contact influences lexical development, alongside other background factors (age of reduced L1 contact, length of residence in the L2, education level) and sociolinguistic factors (attitude towards the L1, language use and contact). Correlational analyses revealed that two types of contact factors were crucial for maintaining L1 lexical proficiency: 1) intense receptive input such as reading German books and other German visual media, and 2) exposure to German as a medium of instruction within an educational setting. Neither of these factors allow nor permit any code-switching or code-mixing and are considered to be a form of German monolingual input, thus cementing L1 knowledge and skills and proving to be beneficial for long-term language development and maintenance. Conclusions drawn from the results of the study are discussed in the final chapter and suggestions for future research are presented. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verhuising na ‘n nuwe land sluit gewoonlik blootstelling van menself aan nuwe tale en kulture in. Baie individue wat na ‘n ander land verhuis en ‘n nuwe taal aanleer, loop soms die risiko om die taal van hulle land van herkoms, te verloor. Studies in eerste taal (L1) verlies het ten doel om te beskryf wat in ‘n individu se L1 gebeur wanneer hy of sy verhuis of wegbreek van die bron asook om te verduidelik watter linguistiese aspekte verander of aanpas en waarom. Die doel van hierdie navorsing is om leksikale bevoegdheid in L1 Duitse tweetalige sprekers in die Wes-Kaap, te ondersoek. Leksikale data is deur ‘n Verbale Vlotheid Taak (VFT) en ‘n Prentjie Benaaming Taak (PNT) versamel. Meer spesifiek, assesseer die navorsing die mate van die graad waartoe Duitse L1 kontak leksikale ontwikkeling beïnvloed tesame met ander agtergrondfaktore (ouderdom van verminderde L1 kontak, lengte van verblyf in die L2, onderrigvlak). Korrelatiewe analises dui daarop dat twee tipes kontakfaktore van uiterste belang was vir L1 leksikale bevoegdheid: 1) intense vatbare insette soos die lees van Duitse boeke en ander Duitse visuele media, en 2) blootsteling aan Duits as ‘n medium van instruksie in ‘n onderrigopset. Nie een van hierdie twee faktore laat enige kode-wisseling of kode-vermenging toe nie en is oorwegend ‘n vorm van Duitse eentalige tevoer, dus word L1-kennis en-vaardighede vasgelê en bewys dat dit voordelig is vir langtermyn taalontwikeling en instandhouding. Gevolgtrekkings wat van die resultate van die studie gemaak is, word in die finale hoofstuk bespreek en voorstelle vir toekomstige navorsing word aangedui.

Although social psychologists have made important strides towards understanding the effects of stigma on both individuals’ behaviours and their relationships with non-stigmatized groups, language patterns within this domain have largely been ignored. This thesis aims to address this gap by investigating the role that language patterns play in shaping the relationship between native and non-native speakers against the backdrop of an increasingly relevant context in which communicators with diverse language backgrounds interact: Immigration. Drawing on both communication accommodation theory (CAT) and intergroup contact theory, I investigate the processes by which language styles influence perceptions of both individuals and the groups they represent, as well as attempt to determine how language-based categorizations affect those whose language style deviates from majority group norms. Across six studies, I take the perspective of native speakers and demonstrate that perceptions of communicators based on their language are not uniform but are determined by factors including the style of language used and the speaker’s background. I then take the perspective of non-native speakers and, across two studies, show that negative perceptions of non-native accents can result in poorer interactions with the native speaking out-group as well as a reduced ability to comprehend and communicate in the host country’s language. In sum, the eight studies presented in this thesis demonstrate that perceptions related to one’s style of language can be detrimental to the relationship between native and non-native speakers and by extension host country natives and immigrants. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The work selected for this portfolio comprises two language-specific case studies (‘Russian and Soviet loanwords and calques in the Czech lexicon since the beginning of the twentieth century’ and ‘Češi a slovenština’ [The Czechs and the Slovak language]), two publications on the critical reception of foreign vocabulary in Czech (‘The legacy and limitations of Czech purism’ and Attitudes to lexical borrowing in the Czech Republic), and a detailed article on the implications of naming practices for perceptions of the self and others (‘The Czech-speaking lands, their peoples and contact communities: titles, names and ethnonyms’). Extensive use is made of original material, including two nationwide quantitative surveys conducted on my behalf by the Public Opinion Research Centre of the Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic (CVVM), and two small-scale questionnaires carried out for me by Dr Miroslav Růžička of the Czech University of Life Sciences (Prague), as well as a range of other empirical data, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, electronic corpora, and additional sources of lexical and historical information. My commentary employs a thematic approach, which aims both to acquaint the reader with the main findings of each of my publications, and to indicate the broad direction of my output. Supplementary information is provided in the commentary, where required, to contextualize and synthesize my arguments, to shed light on recent scholarship in cognate fields, and to ensure narrative continuity. The ‘new’ knowledge thus complements and frames the discussion of my selected publications, thereby helping to guide the reader through the exposition of my writings. The principal unifying themes of the chosen pieces are their emphasis on (1) the role of language in the national consciousness and self-perception, (2) the influence of external forces on the shaping of the Czech lexicon, and people’s reactions to those forces, (3) public perceptions of lexical borrowing, and (4) changing attitudes to the notion of ‘foreign’, as reflected in the national idiom. The commentary is divided into eight chapters, as listed in the Table of Contents. My study begins with a general introduction to my academic background, and to the content and themes of this thesis, as summarized above. Chapter 2 is based principally on my article ‘The legacy and limitations of Czech purism’, and provides a combination of historical setting and statistical analysis. The next chapter presents a résumé of the overall impact of foreign languages and cultures on the historical development of Czech, with the aim of contextualizing the findings of subsequent chapters. Chapter 4, which draws mainly on ‘Russian and Soviet loanwords and calques in the Czech lexicon since the beginning of the twentieth century’, reevaluates the impact of Russian and ‘Soviet speak’ on the Czech lexicon. In chapter 5, I consider in detail the asymmetrical nature of Czech–Slovak language relations, with reference to the views of over 1,400 informants interviewed for ‘Češi a slovenština’ and Attitudes to lexical borrowing in the Czech Republic. Chapter 6 compares the results of my survey for the latter publication, referred to as ‘Perceptions’, with a series of other questionnaires, including Tejnor’s groundbreaking 1970 study of foreign words. ‘The Czech-speaking lands, their peoples and contact communities: titles, names and ethnonyms’ provides the substance of much of chapter 7, which focuses on the Czechs’ tendency to see themselves in terms of opposition to outsiders, and on the depiction of ‘foreignness’ in the Czech lexicon. The commentary concludes with a summary of my principal observations relating to aspects of language contact and lexical borrowing in Czech, and to their implications for the self and others. Taken collectively, the eight chapters provide a framework for the discussion of my published work and for the thematic and conceptual links that validate their consideration as a corpus of cognate research activity.

The main focus of this study is the High German language spoken by Russian Mennonites, one of the many groups of German-speaking immigrants in Canada. Although the primary language of most Russian Mennonites is a Low German variety called Plautdietsch, High German has been widely used in Russian Mennonite communities since the end of the eighteenth century and is perceived as one of their mother tongues. The primary objectives of the study are to investigate: 1) when, with whom, and for what purposes the major languages of Russian Mennonites were used by the members of the second and third migration waves (mid 1920s and 1940-50s respectively) and how the situation has changed today; 2) if there are any differences in spoken High German between representatives of the two groups and what these differences can be attributed to; 3) to what extent the High German of the subjects corresponds to the Standard High German. The primary thesis of this project is that different historical events as well as different social and political conditions witnessed by members of these groups both in Russia (e.g. closure of High German schools and churches in the 1920s and 1930s) and in Canada (e.g. the transition of most Mennonite churches from High German to English) have had a considerable influence upon and were reflected in their perception and use of High German. The data for the project consist of two sets of audio-recorded interviews in High German conducted in 1976-1978 by Henry Paetkau and Stan Dueck with Russian Mennonite immigrants of the 1920s (21 interviews), and by the author of this project in the spring of 2007 with representatives of the third migration wave (19 interviews). Both sets of interviews underwent textual and content analysis. Ten selected interviews have been transcribed following the rules of the CHAT (Codes of the Human Analysis of Transcripts) notation system and analyzed with the help of the CLAN (Computerized Language Analysis) software. The results of the study indicate that generally the patterns of language use by both groups showed a number of important differences during their stay in Russia but were found to be very similar after each group migrated to Canada. Further, no significant differences in the use of non-standard constructions between the two groups have been discovered and the main hypothesis of the study was not supported. Finally, it has been determined that the variety of High German spoken by the Russian Mennonites departs from Standard High German in a number of respects and features a variety of non-standard constructions. While some of them can be traced back to the influence of the English or Russian languages, many other non-standard constructions were most likely present in the speech of Russian Mennonites long before intensive contact with these languages began. It has been argued that some non-standard constructions were also relatively stable in the group’s High German and that they are a result of both language-internal as well as language-external processes of change.

The main focus of this study is the High German language spoken by Russian Mennonites, one of the many groups of German-speaking immigrants in Canada. Although the primary language of most Russian Mennonites is a Low German variety called Plautdietsch, High German has been widely used in Russian Mennonite communities since the end of the eighteenth century and is perceived as one of their mother tongues. The primary objectives of the study are to investigate: 1) when, with whom, and for what purposes the major languages of Russian Mennonites were used by the members of the second and third migration waves (mid 1920s and 1940-50s respectively) and how the situation has changed today; 2) if there are any differences in spoken High German between representatives of the two groups and what these differences can be attributed to; 3) to what extent the High German of the subjects corresponds to the Standard High German. The primary thesis of this project is that different historical events as well as different social and political conditions witnessed by members of these groups both in Russia (e.g. closure of High German schools and churches in the 1920s and 1930s) and in Canada (e.g. the transition of most Mennonite churches from High German to English) have had a considerable influence upon and were reflected in their perception and use of High German. The data for the project consist of two sets of audio-recorded interviews in High German conducted in 1976-1978 by Henry Paetkau and Stan Dueck with Russian Mennonite immigrants of the 1920s (21 interviews), and by the author of this project in the spring of 2007 with representatives of the third migration wave (19 interviews). Both sets of interviews underwent textual and content analysis. Ten selected interviews have been transcribed following the rules of the CHAT (Codes of the Human Analysis of Transcripts) notation system and analyzed with the help of the CLAN (Computerized Language Analysis) software. The results of the study indicate that generally the patterns of language use by both groups showed a number of important differences during their stay in Russia but were found to be very similar after each group migrated to Canada. Further, no significant differences in the use of non-standard constructions between the two groups have been discovered and the main hypothesis of the study was not supported. Finally, it has been determined that the variety of High German spoken by the Russian Mennonites departs from Standard High German in a number of respects and features a variety of non-standard constructions. While some of them can be traced back to the influence of the English or Russian languages, many other non-standard constructions were most likely present in the speech of Russian Mennonites long before intensive contact with these languages began. It has been argued that some non-standard constructions were also relatively stable in the group’s High German and that they are a result of both language-internal as well as language-external processes of change.

O projeto NURC surge no Brasil para estabelecer amostras da norma culta falada em cinco grandes capitais brasileiras. Fundamenta-se na pragmática, a conversação entre os falantes é analisada e os resultados desta análise desvendam os elementos típicos da oralidade. Um dos elementos mais estudados tem sido os marcadores conversacionais ou discursivos. Estes são relevantes para a coesão e coerência do texto falado. A partir do estudo sobre a norma culta, averiguamos a presença dos marcadores conversacionais na língua falada no Paraguai, o guarani jopará. Trata-se de uma língua que se mistura com o espanhol. São encontradas grandes mesclas lingüísticas que se evidenciam também nos marcadores conversacionais. Este trabalho visa, portanto, apresentar alguns marcadores conversacionais presentes no corpus e estabelecer suas funções dentro do contexto interacional do ato comunicativo. Visa também apresentar os marcadores conversacionais responsáveis pelos encadeamentos entre os super-tópicos e tópicos do texto oral. / The project NURC was created in Brazil as an attempt to establish samples of educated spoken language. Relying on pragmatics, the speakers conversations are analysed and the results shows an increasing number of typical elements of oral language. One of the most frequently studied elements has been the conversational or discursive markers, essential for cohesion and coherence of spoken text. We research the conversational markers in the language spoken in Paraguai: The Guarani jopará. It is a language that is mixed with Spanish. Is possible to find a lot of linguistic mixing in the guarani jopará conversational markers too. Therefore, this study aimed at presenting some conversational markers founded in the corpus and defining their functions within the interaction context of the communicative act.

O projeto NURC surge no Brasil para estabelecer amostras da norma culta falada em cinco grandes capitais brasileiras. Fundamenta-se na pragmática, a conversação entre os falantes é analisada e os resultados desta análise desvendam os elementos típicos da oralidade. Um dos elementos mais estudados tem sido os marcadores conversacionais ou discursivos. Estes são relevantes para a coesão e coerência do texto falado. A partir do estudo sobre a norma culta, averiguamos a presença dos marcadores conversacionais na língua falada no Paraguai, o guarani jopará. Trata-se de uma língua que se mistura com o espanhol. São encontradas grandes mesclas lingüísticas que se evidenciam também nos marcadores conversacionais. Este trabalho visa, portanto, apresentar alguns marcadores conversacionais presentes no corpus e estabelecer suas funções dentro do contexto interacional do ato comunicativo. Visa também apresentar os marcadores conversacionais responsáveis pelos encadeamentos entre os super-tópicos e tópicos do texto oral. / The project NURC was created in Brazil as an attempt to establish samples of educated spoken language. Relying on pragmatics, the speakers conversations are analysed and the results shows an increasing number of typical elements of oral language. One of the most frequently studied elements has been the conversational or discursive markers, essential for cohesion and coherence of spoken text. We research the conversational markers in the language spoken in Paraguai: The Guarani jopará. It is a language that is mixed with Spanish. Is possible to find a lot of linguistic mixing in the guarani jopará conversational markers too. Therefore, this study aimed at presenting some conversational markers founded in the corpus and defining their functions within the interaction context of the communicative act.