South Africa (SA) is home to 11 official named languages; its Language in Education Policy (LIEP) identifies multilingualism as one of the defining characteristics of its citizenry (DOE, 1997). Moreover, English is the official Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) in most ex-Model C schools nationwide. It is the language that is reported to be valued by the middleclass, people who are known for placing a high premium on education (Soudien, 2004; Alexander, 2005). The aim of this ethnographic Language Socialisation study is to explore the language socialisation experiences of a Grade R child in a Black middle-class multilingual family residing in a Cape Town suburb. The study is framed by the question: What are the language socialisation experiences of a child from a Black middle-class multilingual family? It uses a socio-cultural approach, drawing from linguistic anthropology, applied linguistics and sociolinguistics to critically analyse the language ideologies, language practices and linguistic repertoires evident in both the home and school domains across which the young child traverses. Concepts such as multilingualism, Family Language Policy and ‘mother tongue’ identity are reviewed and used to gain insight into the lived language experiences of the Grade R child. The concepts of assimilation (Soudien, 2004) and anglonormativity (Christie & McKinney, 2017) are reflected on as markers of school language practices and ideologies. Findings reveal that the Grade R child is an emergent multilingual who participates meaningfully in multilingual conversations with her family but only produces English. Despite the evident heteroglossia (Bhaktin, 1991) of the family’s language practices through translanguaging (Garcia, 2009; Creese and Blackledge, 2010) and drawing from the range of resources in their linguistic repertoires (Busch, 2012), the parents continue to use their Tswana and Xhosa ethnicity as markers of their language identities. The parents want their children to speak their heritage languages for identity reasons. They also want them to speak English to ‘fit in’ with their peers and to access learning. They see the teaching of Tswana and Xhosa as their sole responsibility thereby absolving the school. Their view enables the schools’ status quo of anglonormativity to go unchallenged. The child, thus, experiences heritage languages as identity markers and languages reserved for home, and English as a valuable language resource that gives access to learning. The notion of a single language identity remains complex for a child who is expected to be multilingual at home but monolingual at school.

The use of a heritage language (HL) at home has been seen as one of the most influential factors in determining its maintenance and is highly shaped by the attitudes parents have towards their language. These parental attitudes thus play a significant role in children's HL socialisation, particularly in environments in which the HL is in competition with multiple minority and/or majority languages, as is the case in many areas of Canada with the two Official Languages (OLs), French and English. In such environments, HL maintenance is not only influenced by the parental attitudes towards the HL itself, but also towards the OLs. Parental attitudes, the language(s) of schooling and overall exposure to each language all play a role in determining if the child will grow up to be monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual. This exploratory study aimed to identify the attitudes of Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking parents towards maintaining these HLs in Canada and their children’s language development in their HLs alongside French and English. It also aimed to explore how these attitudes influence their practices with respect to their children’s language socialisation, specifically their family language practices and the language(s) of schooling in which they choose to enrol their children, adding to this area of study that currently lacks descriptive research. Both the qualitative and quantitative results showed that the 315 parent participants generally had positive or very positive attitudes towards their HL and its maintenance in Canada, showing a high desire for their children to develop bilingually or multilingually in their HL and one or both of the OLs. These attitudes supported the family use patterns, with many parents reporting a high use of their HL at home, including those in linguistically intermarried families. Their positive attitudes towards both OLs and a generally high desire for bilingual or multilingual education were supported by the choices they made, when possible, in the language(s) of education of their children. The lack of quality and/or accessible options was noted by many and shows a growing need for more educational offerings in these two HLs. The results may be used in determining best practices for the transmission and maintenance of Spanish and Portuguese in a linguistically-diverse Canada.

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF YUTAO YAN, for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in EDUCATION, presented on November 21, 2022, at Southern Illinois University Carbondale.TITLE: FROM THE MOST SPOKEN MANDARIN TO THE MOST CHOSEN ENGLISH: STORIES OF INTERNATIONAL CHINESE STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE INVESTMENT AT A RURAL MIDWESTERN UNIVERSITYMAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. Heidi R. BaconThe purpose of this study was to investigate international Chinese students’ (ICS) English learning experiences at a rural Midwestern university. The study explored how ICS acculturated to a new learning environment which is dominated by English. The study also examined how ICS’s investment in English was influenced by their (re)constructed identities as they participated in local communities.The study employed a language-as-a-social-practice framework to interpret ICS’s learning English as an L2. ICS, in an increasingly globalized world, are expected to obtain linguistic and cognitive knowledge of English through which they help connect China to the Western world. They are also expected to participate in local target language communities in which they develop multilingual-and-multicultural consciousness to serve the larger global community. Meanwhile, second language socialization empowers ICS to exercise their multiple identities (e.g., linguistic, ethnic, social, cultural, and national identity) which can improve and enhance communicative competence in their professional social lives. A qualitative narrative inquiry was adopted as a research approach to address ICS’s acculturative experiences and language investment stories. Five participants were interviewed in Zoom meeting rooms and observed during virtual activities due to the Covid-19 pandemic. A researcher reflective journal was added to support data collection because of the cultural proximity between the researcher and participants. Two cycles of data analysis were conducted to develop 4 main themes: 1) ICS’s imagined communities, 2) L2 practice, 3) social networking, and 4) the influence of Covid-19. Research findings indicated that when in China, participants made study abroad decisions based on their imagination of English and the U.S. In the U.S., participants acculturated to an academic English discourse community but met with many difficulties (e.g., insufficient English proficiency and unfamiliarity with academic conventions). Their multiple identities were challenged when they initially participated in social interactions and socially networked within local communities. Covid-19 mitigation policies (e.g., stay-at-home, and social distancing orders) interfered with participants’ L2 socialization. ICS were expected to socialize using English in various academic and local discourse communities. Their multiple identities were challenged when they crossed multiple borders to make meaning in American cultural contexts. This study encourages China’s English educators to pay attention to language identity development and investment and to better prepare students for a multilingual and multicultural learning environment mediated by English. Findings also call for American educators to tailor their instruction to help ICS develop their transnational identities. Last, educators need to help ICS develop their multiple identities which can enable them to fulfill their language investment and achieve their learning goals.

This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)