Language planning and policy formulation is a complex exercise. The purpose of this research was to explore and expose the challenges of language planning and policy formulation in Africa, with specific reference to Zimbabwe as the case study. To carry out the study, critical stages, approaches, theories and models of language planning were used. This analysis further established the attitudes of indigenous communities towards the use of indigenous languages in major domains of life. The study revealed the dilemma African Governments face in ‘officializing’ indigenous languages. The study proposes that in a multilingual nation like Zimbabwe, there is strong need to provide legal recognition to African languages as both official and national languages within Zimbabwe’s constitution. The research comprises six chapters. The conclusion restates the problem identified at the beginning and summarizes the findings. / African Languages / M.A. (African Languages)

Language planning and policy formulation is a complex exercise. The purpose of this research was to explore and expose the challenges of language planning and policy formulation in Africa, with specific reference to Zimbabwe as the case study. To carry out the study, critical stages, approaches, theories and models of language planning were used. This analysis further established the attitudes of indigenous communities towards the use of indigenous languages in major domains of life. The study revealed the dilemma African Governments face in ‘officializing’ indigenous languages. The study proposes that in a multilingual nation like Zimbabwe, there is strong need to provide legal recognition to African languages as both official and national languages within Zimbabwe’s constitution. The research comprises six chapters. The conclusion restates the problem identified at the beginning and summarizes the findings. / African Languages / M.A. (African Languages)

This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study sought to critically investigate the contribution of the ordinary people in the creation of a language policy and its subsequent implementation in Zimbabwe. The study was prompted by the realisation of the near-absence of a coherent language policy framework in Zimbabwe. The language policy situation in Zimbabwe is not clearly stated. A hotch-potch of statutes support the status, creation and implementation of languages that are spoken by the citizens of the country. The country’s supreme law, the constitution is silent about the necessity of a broad-based language policy in Zimbabwe. Only three languages Shona, Ndebele and English are considered to be major in a country with 16 known languages. This situation does not support the development of languages particularly the indigenous languages. Indigenous languages are not considered as a suitable medium of instruction from the third year of primary schooling up to tertiary level. Indigenous languages play a critical role in culture, economics and politics. The study argued that ordinary people have creative ways of contributing to the development of a language policy because these people are constantly creating new words and vocabulary that they implement in their day to day struggle with nature and other social classes. Authorities in Zimbabwe are yet to view the role of indigenous languages in development as a cornerstone of socio-economic and political progress. African languages, particularly the Shona language that was the main unit of analysis in this study revealed its capacity to handle complex ideas. It was recommended that when Shona and other indigenous languages are accorded the status of official languages of the country and then provided with the financial resources and linguistic expertise to develop them then, a coherent language policy can become a living reality in Zimbabwe. / Africam Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 171-177) / The study is an investigation into nation building through the national anthem in Zimbabwe. It takes a sociolinguistic dimension where the languages used to sing the national anthem in Zimbabwe are interrogated. The impetus behind the study is that Zimbabwe introduced a new language policy through the constitution where sixteen languages are officially recognised. While citizens look forward to the use of their languages, national symbols such as the national anthem still exist in dominant languages, at least officially. The study therefore sought to find out the views and language choices of citizens when it comes to singing the national anthem. This purpose was fulfilled by eliciting data through questionnaires which were distributed to four areas where marginalised languages are spoken. Participants were drawn from Plumtree, Gwanda, Hwange and Binga. Apart from questionnaires, focus group interviews were conducted with language activists who participate in language associations. Individual interviews were conducted with academics in the area of language. The conceptual framework of the study is nation building which is underpinned by four tenets, while the theory that guided the study is Bourdieu’s theory of social practice. The conceptual framework and theoretical framework were chosen to allow the study to investigate nation building in relation to the sociopolitical context which determines the use of languages in different spheres in Zimbabwe. The study extricates that language is politically malleable and at the same time has the potential to make or break the nation. Respondents were of mixed views concerning the non-use of their languages in the national anthem, bringing out the hegemonic tendencies. The findings of the study show that language is a form of identity and a strong tool of nation building. However, language policies which are not clear tend to confuse the citizens and there is need for the political elite to be involved in the implementation of such policies. The study hence advocates for marginalised languages to be accorded the status they need in order to be used for national symbol expression. / African Languages / D. Phil. (African Languages)

The study investigated language policy and planning in relation to minority languages and specifically Tshwao, a Khoisan language, in Zimbabwe. The purpose of the study was to establish its impact on the current sociolinguistic status of Tshwao. The ultimate goal was to suggest guidelines for the implementation of the Constitution of Zimbabwe (Amendment No. 20) Act, 2013 which officially recognised sixteen languages including ‘Koisan’ and to make recommendations for future language planning for endangered languages in general. The study is qualitative in nature. It used interviews, document analysis, observation and focus groups to gather data. Critical Discourse Analysis and Ethnolinguistic Vitality were the main theories which guided the study. The study showed that even though Tshwao is the Khoisan language that is popular, there are several other varieties such as Jitshwa, Xaise, Cirecire and Ganade and they are all endangered with very low demographic, status and institutional support. The Khoisan people have shifted to Ndebele and Kalanga, languages which are spoken by their neighbours. Both linguistic and extra-linguistic factors were shown in the study to have affected the maintenance of Khoisan languages. Numerical domination of the Khoisan by the Bantu people, subjugation by Mzilikazi during his conquests as well as selective development of languages by missionaries led to assimilation and language marginalisation. The implementation of discriminatory land, wildlife and language polices by the colonial government also resulted in relocations, language contact situations and dispersed settlements, all of which affected language maintenance. In the post-independence era, political instability, official and unofficial language policies were shown as having perpetuated the plight of Khoisan languages, including Tshwao. The constitution emerged as a milestone towards upholding minority languages. Its effectiveness is however compromised by inaccuracies and ambiguities in the manner in which provisions are crafted. The study concludes that Khoisan language endangerment spans from history. Formal and informal language policies contributed to the current state of endangerment. It further concludes that if effective revitalisation is to be done in line with implementing the constitution, all the factors which contributed to endangerment have to be taken into account. The study also suggests a separate guideline for the promotion of minority languages in general and displaced and endangered languages like Tshwao in particular. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Phil. (Linguistics)

This study examines the mediation of multilingualism, localism and the nation in the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, henceforth, ZBC as the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies subsumed in the Broadcasting Services Act (2001) and the Broadcasting Services Amendment Act (2007) respectively translated into radio and television programming. This purpose is pursued by analysing the language choices and practices on the ZBC radio and television stations and programming. This study is informed by an eclectic approach within the critical theory tradition and therefore it disapproves the domination, marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC as a public sphere. Against this backdrop, the study envisages the promotion of linguistic diversity and indigenous African languages in the ZBC broadcasting. Data for this study was gathered from the ZBC employees, academics and the ZBC audience using questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions. As the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies translated into ZBC programming, this study detected a hierarchical organisation of the languages spoken in Zimbabwe on the radio and television stations where English is the most dominant language, while Shona and Ndebele dominate the minority languages, Shona dominates Ndebele and the supremacy of the Zezuru dialect in the Shona language is easily felt. This is a confirmation of the fragility of Zimbabwean linguistic nationalism in the ZBC which is convoluted by the ideological and political nature of the media, electronic colonisation, the political economy of broadcasting, the transformation of the ZBC public sphere by the market and state interests, the influence of the global media firms, and the relentless hegemony of the western countries in the world system. This study established that broadcasting in indigenous African languages is obligatory if the informative, communicative and symbolic functions of the public service broadcasting are to be achieved. However, this study contends that it is remarkably insufficient for linguists to minimally identify, lament and deplore the marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC without taking into account the economic, political and technological factors which contribute to the marginalisation and exclusion of these languages in the ZBC broadcasting in the context of the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies. Therefore, this study implores scholars in the discipline of language studies to ameliorate their sophistication by espousing a multidisciplinary approach to the study of language if they are to make meaningful arguments which can influence meaningful language policy outcomes instead of parroting. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

This study examines the mediation of multilingualism, localism and the nation in the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, henceforth, ZBC as the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies subsumed in the Broadcasting Services Act (2001) and the Broadcasting Services Amendment Act (2007) respectively translated into radio and television programming. This purpose is pursued by analysing the language choices and practices on the ZBC radio and television stations and programming. This study is informed by an eclectic approach within the critical theory tradition and therefore it disapproves the domination, marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC as a public sphere. Against this backdrop, the study envisages the promotion of linguistic diversity and indigenous African languages in the ZBC broadcasting. Data for this study was gathered from the ZBC employees, academics and the ZBC audience using questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions. As the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies translated into ZBC programming, this study detected a hierarchical organisation of the languages spoken in Zimbabwe on the radio and television stations where English is the most dominant language, while Shona and Ndebele dominate the minority languages, Shona dominates Ndebele and the supremacy of the Zezuru dialect in the Shona language is easily felt. This is a confirmation of the fragility of Zimbabwean linguistic nationalism in the ZBC which is convoluted by the ideological and political nature of the media, electronic colonisation, the political economy of broadcasting, the transformation of the ZBC public sphere by the market and state interests, the influence of the global media firms, and the relentless hegemony of the western countries in the world system. This study established that broadcasting in indigenous African languages is obligatory if the informative, communicative and symbolic functions of the public service broadcasting are to be achieved. However, this study contends that it is remarkably insufficient for linguists to minimally identify, lament and deplore the marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC without taking into account the economic, political and technological factors which contribute to the marginalisation and exclusion of these languages in the ZBC broadcasting in the context of the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies. Therefore, this study implores scholars in the discipline of language studies to ameliorate their sophistication by espousing a multidisciplinary approach to the study of language if they are to make meaningful arguments which can influence meaningful language policy outcomes instead of parroting. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

The study sought to investigate how the symbiotic relationship between amaXhosa and amaNdebele impacted on IsiXhosa language and amaXhosa culture in Mbembesi area in Zimbabwe. The study was conducted where two ethnic groups of amaXhosa and amaNdebele coexist. Language policies in the past have disadvantaged amaXhosa by treating the language as a minority language which led to its marginalisation at school and in public life. Dynamic Social Impact Theory was used to explain the concept of the evolution of language. Language contact, language change, and bilingualism are the main terms that were discussed in relation to what happened to the two languages of study. The case study was descriptive in nature. The participants were purposefully selected according to what the researcher desired to achieve. The data were collected through interviews with heads of schools in Mbembesi, teachers, elders and youths of the community. Document analysis was also employed when the Indigenous Languages syllabus and teachers’ schemes were observed. The pupils were given a topic on which to write a short composition in IsiXhosa and IsiNdebele to ascertain if indeed IsiNdebele had impacted on IsiXhosa. A comparison between IsiXhosa of Mbembesi and that of South Africa was made as a way of verifying if there has been a change from the original IsiXhosa that is spoken in South Africa. The two ethnic groups’ cultural activities were also studied as a way of investigating the level of impact in their way of life. After administering the research instruments, the findings revealed that there is a level of impact on IsiXhosa language and amaXhosa culture through their contact with amaNdebele. The terminology in the two languages has overlapped as well as their cultural lives. The Zimbabwean 2013 Constitution has tried to raise the status of IsiXhosa by making it officially recognised but it seems to be still functioning at community level as before. IsiXhosa is still not learned at school although it was introduced in 2013 in the two pilot schools but which discontinued in 2016 reverting to IsiNdebele citing lack of teaching and learning materials. The recommendations from the study include: that the teachers should be trained in IsiXhosa at institutions of higher learning; that amaXhosa educated personnel should spear-head the writing of teaching and learning materials and that the language should be used in public life so that its speakers maintain their identity. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / Ph. D. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)