The focus of this thesis is on the development of sensing devices based on optical fiber sensors, specifically optical Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG), using laser microfabrication methods. FBG is a type of optical fibers whose spectral response is affected by applied strain and temperature. As a result, it can be calibrated for the measurement of physical parameters manifesting themselves in the changes of strain or temperature. The unique features of optical fiber sensors such as FBGs have encouraged the widespread use of the sensor and the development of optical fiber-based sensing devices for structural measurements, failure diagnostics, thermal measurements, pressure monitoring, etc. These features include light weight, small size, long-term durability, robustness to electromagnetic disturbances, and resistance to corrosion. Despite the encouraging features, there are some limitations and challenges associated with FBGs and their applications. One of the challenges associated with FBGs is the coupling of the effects of strain and temperature in the optical response of the sensors which affects the reliability and accuracy of the measurements. Another limitation of FBGs is insensitivity to the index of refraction of their surrounding medium. In liquids, the index of refraction is a function of concentration. Making FBGs sensitive to the index of refraction and keeping their thermal sensitivity intact enable optical sensors with the capability of the simultaneous measurement of concentration and temperature in liquids. Considering the unique features of FBGs, embedding of the sensors in metal parts for in-situ load monitoring is a cutting-edge research topic. Several industries such as machining tools, aerospace, and automotive industries can benefit from this technology. The metal embedding process is a challenging task, as the thermal decay of UV-written gratings can starts at a temperature of ~200 oC and accelerates at higher temperatures. As a result, the embedding process needs to be performed at low temperatures. The objective of the current thesis is to move forward the existing research front in the area of optical fiber sensors by finding effective solutions to the aforementioned limitations. The approaches consist of modeling, design, and fabrication of new FBG-based sensing devices. State-of-the-art laser microfabrication methods are proposed and implemented for the fabrication of the devices. Two approaches are adopted for the development of the FBG-based sensing devices: the additive method and the subtractive method. In both methods, laser direct microfabrication techniques are utilized. The additive method deals with the deposition of on-fiber metal thin films, and the subtractive method is based on the selective removal of materials from the periphery of optical fibers. To design the sensing devices and analyze the performance of the sensors, an opto-mechanical model of FBGs for thermal and structural monitoring is developed. The model is derived from the photo-elastic and thermo-optic properties of optical fibers. The developed model can be applied to predict the optical responses of a FBG exposed to structural loads and temperature variations with uniform and non-uniform distributions. The model is also extended to obtain optical responses of superstructure FBGs in which a secondary periodicity is induced in the index of refraction along the optical fiber. To address the temperature-strain coupling in FBGs, Superstructure FBGs (SFBG) with on-fiber metal thin films are designed and fabricated. It is shown that SFBGs have the capability of measuring strain and temperature simultaneously. The design of the sensor with on-fiber thin films is carried out by using the developed opto-mechanical model of FBGs. The performance of the sensor in concurrent measurement of strain and temperature is investigated by using a customized test rig. A laser-based Direct Write (DW) method, called Laser-Assisted Maskless Microdeposition (LAMM), is implemented to selectively deposit silver thin films on optical fibers and fabricate the superstructure FBGs. To attain thin films with premium quality, a characterization scheme is designed to study the geometrical, mechanical, and microstructural properties of the thin films in terms of the LAMM process parameters. A FBG, capable of measuring concentration and temperature of liquids is developed, and its performance is tested. Femtosecond laser micromachining is successfully implemented as a subtractive method for the sensor fabrication. For this purpose, periodic micro-grooves are inscribed in the cladding of regular FBGs so as to increase their sensitivity to the concentration of their surrounding liquid while keeping their thermal sensitivity intact. This type of sensors has the potential for applications in biomedical research, in which the in-situ measurement of the properties of biological analytes is required. Another accomplishment of this thesis is the development of FBG sensors embedded in metal parts for structural health monitoring using low temperature embedding processes. In this regard, the opto-mechanical model is extended to predict the optical response of the embedded FBGs. The embedding process involves low temperature casting, on-fiber thin film deposition, and electroplating methods. The performance of the embedded sensors is evaluated in structural loading and thermal cycling.

The focus of this thesis is on the development of sensing devices based on optical fiber sensors, specifically optical Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBG), using laser microfabrication methods. FBG is a type of optical fibers whose spectral response is affected by applied strain and temperature. As a result, it can be calibrated for the measurement of physical parameters manifesting themselves in the changes of strain or temperature. The unique features of optical fiber sensors such as FBGs have encouraged the widespread use of the sensor and the development of optical fiber-based sensing devices for structural measurements, failure diagnostics, thermal measurements, pressure monitoring, etc. These features include light weight, small size, long-term durability, robustness to electromagnetic disturbances, and resistance to corrosion. Despite the encouraging features, there are some limitations and challenges associated with FBGs and their applications. One of the challenges associated with FBGs is the coupling of the effects of strain and temperature in the optical response of the sensors which affects the reliability and accuracy of the measurements. Another limitation of FBGs is insensitivity to the index of refraction of their surrounding medium. In liquids, the index of refraction is a function of concentration. Making FBGs sensitive to the index of refraction and keeping their thermal sensitivity intact enable optical sensors with the capability of the simultaneous measurement of concentration and temperature in liquids. Considering the unique features of FBGs, embedding of the sensors in metal parts for in-situ load monitoring is a cutting-edge research topic. Several industries such as machining tools, aerospace, and automotive industries can benefit from this technology. The metal embedding process is a challenging task, as the thermal decay of UV-written gratings can starts at a temperature of ~200 oC and accelerates at higher temperatures. As a result, the embedding process needs to be performed at low temperatures. The objective of the current thesis is to move forward the existing research front in the area of optical fiber sensors by finding effective solutions to the aforementioned limitations. The approaches consist of modeling, design, and fabrication of new FBG-based sensing devices. State-of-the-art laser microfabrication methods are proposed and implemented for the fabrication of the devices. Two approaches are adopted for the development of the FBG-based sensing devices: the additive method and the subtractive method. In both methods, laser direct microfabrication techniques are utilized. The additive method deals with the deposition of on-fiber metal thin films, and the subtractive method is based on the selective removal of materials from the periphery of optical fibers. To design the sensing devices and analyze the performance of the sensors, an opto-mechanical model of FBGs for thermal and structural monitoring is developed. The model is derived from the photo-elastic and thermo-optic properties of optical fibers. The developed model can be applied to predict the optical responses of a FBG exposed to structural loads and temperature variations with uniform and non-uniform distributions. The model is also extended to obtain optical responses of superstructure FBGs in which a secondary periodicity is induced in the index of refraction along the optical fiber. To address the temperature-strain coupling in FBGs, Superstructure FBGs (SFBG) with on-fiber metal thin films are designed and fabricated. It is shown that SFBGs have the capability of measuring strain and temperature simultaneously. The design of the sensor with on-fiber thin films is carried out by using the developed opto-mechanical model of FBGs. The performance of the sensor in concurrent measurement of strain and temperature is investigated by using a customized test rig. A laser-based Direct Write (DW) method, called Laser-Assisted Maskless Microdeposition (LAMM), is implemented to selectively deposit silver thin films on optical fibers and fabricate the superstructure FBGs. To attain thin films with premium quality, a characterization scheme is designed to study the geometrical, mechanical, and microstructural properties of the thin films in terms of the LAMM process parameters. A FBG, capable of measuring concentration and temperature of liquids is developed, and its performance is tested. Femtosecond laser micromachining is successfully implemented as a subtractive method for the sensor fabrication. For this purpose, periodic micro-grooves are inscribed in the cladding of regular FBGs so as to increase their sensitivity to the concentration of their surrounding liquid while keeping their thermal sensitivity intact. This type of sensors has the potential for applications in biomedical research, in which the in-situ measurement of the properties of biological analytes is required. Another accomplishment of this thesis is the development of FBG sensors embedded in metal parts for structural health monitoring using low temperature embedding processes. In this regard, the opto-mechanical model is extended to predict the optical response of the embedded FBGs. The embedding process involves low temperature casting, on-fiber thin film deposition, and electroplating methods. The performance of the embedded sensors is evaluated in structural loading and thermal cycling.

The extra-cellular microenvironment has a fundamental role in tumor growth and progression, strongly affecting the migration strategies adopted by single cancer cells during metastatic invasion. In this study, we use a novel microfluidic device to investigate the ability of mesenchymal and epithelial breast tumor cells to fluidize and migrate through narrowing microstructures upon chemoattractant stimulation. We compare the migration behavior of two mesenchymal breast cancer cell lines and one epithelial cell line, and find that the epithelial cells are able to migrate through the narrowest microconstrictions as the more invasive mesenchymal cells. In addition, we demonstrate that migration of epithelial cells through a highly compressive environment can occur in absence of a chemoattractive stimulus, thus evidencing that they are just as prone to react to mechanical cues as invasive cells

Understanding cell migration is a key step in unraveling many physiological phenomena and predicting several pathologies, such as cancer metastasis. In particular, confinement has been proven to be a key factor in the cellular migration strategy choice. As our insight in the field improves, new tools are needed in order to empower biologists’ analysis capabilities. In this framework, microfluidic devices have been used to engineer the mechanical and spatial stimuli and to investigate cellular migration response in a more controlled way. In this work, we will review the existing technologies employed in the realization of microfluidic cellular migration assays, namely the soft lithography of PDMS and hydrogels and femtosecond laser micromachining. We will give an overview of the state of the art of these devices, focusing on the different geometrical configurations that have been exploited to study specific aspects of cellular migration. Our scope is to highlight the advantages and possibilities given by each approach and to envisage the future developments in in vitro migration studies under spatial confinement in microfluidic devices.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a confecção e caracterização de guias de onda de GeO2-PbO e TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de onda foram produzidos a partir de filmes finos e vidros usando diferentes procedimentos. Os filmes foram produzidos usando a técnica de RF \"magnetron sputtering\" e foram caracterizados por meio de várias análises. Em especial, a microscopia eletrônica de varredura foi indispensável para definição dos melhores processos para a construção dos guias de onda, o maior desafio do trabalho, pois não havia na literatura trabalhos desta natureza com os materiais em questão. Os guias nos filmes foram construídos sobre substratos de silício, utilizando-se os processos convencionais de microeletrônica: limpeza química, oxidação térmica, deposição por \"sputtering\", litografia óptica e corrosões úmidas e por plasma. Os diversos testes realizados com estes processos permitiram encontrar as melhores condições (corrosão por plasma de SF6, resiste AZ-5214 e remoção com microstripper 2001) para a implementação de guias de onda \"rib\" com largura de 1 à 10 m usando profundidades de 70 nm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e de 90 nm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de ondas rib de PbO-GeO2 e TeO2-ZnO foram analisados opticamente quanto às perdas por propagação. Ambos apresentaram guiamento multimodo (TE) e os valores de atenuação experimentais obtidos foram de 2,2 dB/cm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e 1,5 dB/cm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO em 633 nm. Estes valores dependem da rugosidade superficial e lateral dos guias de ondas, da uniformidade dos filmes empregados e da diferença entre os índices de refração. Realizamos simulações do guiamento óptico em estruturas planares e tipo rib, para obter as atenuações no guiamento. Os resultados calculados foram compatíveis aos encontrados experimentalmente Os guias de onda feitos com vidros de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 e TeO2-GeO2-PbO utilizaram a técnica de escrita direta de laser de femtosegundos. Os melhores parâmetros de escrita dos guias produzidos foram para a velocidade de 0,05 mm/s e potência do laser de 10W. Para esta condição, o vidro de TeO2-GeO2-PbO apresentou perdas de 6,8 dB (para comprimento de 0,75 cm) e o vidro de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, 7,0 dB (para comprimento de 0,9 cm), em 633 nm. Este trabalho apresentou o desenvolvimento da tecnologia adequada para a produção de guias de onda formados por novos materiais, teluretos e germanatos, promissores para a optoeletrônica e fotônica. / The objective of this work is the production and characterization of GeO2-PbO and TeO2-ZnO waveguides. The waveguides were produced using thin films and glasses by means of different procedures. The films were produced using the RF magnetron sputtering method and characterized by a variety of techniques. In particular, scanning electron microscopy was essential to optimize the processes involved in producing the waveguides. This was one the fundamental challenge of this work since there are no reports in the literature describing these processes on such materials. The thin film waveguides were produced on top of a silicon substrate using conventional microelectronic procedures: chemical cleaning, thermal oxidation, sputtering deposition, optical lithography and wet chemical corrosion or plasma etching. Several tests performed using these processes enabled the determination of the best condition (SF6 etching, AZ-5214 resist and resist removal with microstripper 2001) for the implementation of rib waveguides with 1 to 10 m width and average depth of 70 nm for GeO2-PbO and 90 nm for TeO2-ZnO. For the rib waveguides of PbO-GeO2 and TeO2-ZnO the propagation losses were optically measured. Both systems presented a multimode (TE) guiding with attenuation values of 2.2 dB/cm for PbO-GeO2 and 1.5 dB/cm for TeO2-ZnO at 633 nm. These values depend heavily on the surface and lateral roughness, on the uniformity of the films and on the difference between the refractive index. We conducted computer simulations of optical guiding in planar and rib structures in order to estimate the guiding losses. The calculated values were compatible with the experimental results. Glasses waveguides of GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 and TeO2-GeO2-PbO were produced using the direct writing technique with a femtosecond laser. The structures were analyzed optically in order to determine the overall propagation losses. The optimized writing parameters were 0.05 mm/s speed with 10 W laser power. Using these parameters we obtained for the propagation losses at 633 nm, 6.8 dB (for 0.75 cm length) and 7.0 dB (for 0.9 cm length) for TeO2-GeO2-PbO and GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, respectively. This work presents the development of an adequate technology for the production of waveguides composed of new materials with promising applications for optoelectronics and photonics.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a confecção e caracterização de guias de onda de GeO2-PbO e TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de onda foram produzidos a partir de filmes finos e vidros usando diferentes procedimentos. Os filmes foram produzidos usando a técnica de RF \"magnetron sputtering\" e foram caracterizados por meio de várias análises. Em especial, a microscopia eletrônica de varredura foi indispensável para definição dos melhores processos para a construção dos guias de onda, o maior desafio do trabalho, pois não havia na literatura trabalhos desta natureza com os materiais em questão. Os guias nos filmes foram construídos sobre substratos de silício, utilizando-se os processos convencionais de microeletrônica: limpeza química, oxidação térmica, deposição por \"sputtering\", litografia óptica e corrosões úmidas e por plasma. Os diversos testes realizados com estes processos permitiram encontrar as melhores condições (corrosão por plasma de SF6, resiste AZ-5214 e remoção com microstripper 2001) para a implementação de guias de onda \"rib\" com largura de 1 à 10 m usando profundidades de 70 nm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e de 90 nm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de ondas rib de PbO-GeO2 e TeO2-ZnO foram analisados opticamente quanto às perdas por propagação. Ambos apresentaram guiamento multimodo (TE) e os valores de atenuação experimentais obtidos foram de 2,2 dB/cm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e 1,5 dB/cm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO em 633 nm. Estes valores dependem da rugosidade superficial e lateral dos guias de ondas, da uniformidade dos filmes empregados e da diferença entre os índices de refração. Realizamos simulações do guiamento óptico em estruturas planares e tipo rib, para obter as atenuações no guiamento. Os resultados calculados foram compatíveis aos encontrados experimentalmente Os guias de onda feitos com vidros de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 e TeO2-GeO2-PbO utilizaram a técnica de escrita direta de laser de femtosegundos. Os melhores parâmetros de escrita dos guias produzidos foram para a velocidade de 0,05 mm/s e potência do laser de 10W. Para esta condição, o vidro de TeO2-GeO2-PbO apresentou perdas de 6,8 dB (para comprimento de 0,75 cm) e o vidro de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, 7,0 dB (para comprimento de 0,9 cm), em 633 nm. Este trabalho apresentou o desenvolvimento da tecnologia adequada para a produção de guias de onda formados por novos materiais, teluretos e germanatos, promissores para a optoeletrônica e fotônica. / The objective of this work is the production and characterization of GeO2-PbO and TeO2-ZnO waveguides. The waveguides were produced using thin films and glasses by means of different procedures. The films were produced using the RF magnetron sputtering method and characterized by a variety of techniques. In particular, scanning electron microscopy was essential to optimize the processes involved in producing the waveguides. This was one the fundamental challenge of this work since there are no reports in the literature describing these processes on such materials. The thin film waveguides were produced on top of a silicon substrate using conventional microelectronic procedures: chemical cleaning, thermal oxidation, sputtering deposition, optical lithography and wet chemical corrosion or plasma etching. Several tests performed using these processes enabled the determination of the best condition (SF6 etching, AZ-5214 resist and resist removal with microstripper 2001) for the implementation of rib waveguides with 1 to 10 m width and average depth of 70 nm for GeO2-PbO and 90 nm for TeO2-ZnO. For the rib waveguides of PbO-GeO2 and TeO2-ZnO the propagation losses were optically measured. Both systems presented a multimode (TE) guiding with attenuation values of 2.2 dB/cm for PbO-GeO2 and 1.5 dB/cm for TeO2-ZnO at 633 nm. These values depend heavily on the surface and lateral roughness, on the uniformity of the films and on the difference between the refractive index. We conducted computer simulations of optical guiding in planar and rib structures in order to estimate the guiding losses. The calculated values were compatible with the experimental results. Glasses waveguides of GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 and TeO2-GeO2-PbO were produced using the direct writing technique with a femtosecond laser. The structures were analyzed optically in order to determine the overall propagation losses. The optimized writing parameters were 0.05 mm/s speed with 10 W laser power. Using these parameters we obtained for the propagation losses at 633 nm, 6.8 dB (for 0.75 cm length) and 7.0 dB (for 0.9 cm length) for TeO2-GeO2-PbO and GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, respectively. This work presents the development of an adequate technology for the production of waveguides composed of new materials with promising applications for optoelectronics and photonics.

Understanding cell migration is a key step in unraveling many physiological phenomena and predicting several pathologies, such as cancer metastasis. In particular, confinement has been proven to be a key factor in the cellular migration strategy choice. As our insight in the field improves, new tools are needed in order to empower biologists’ analysis capabilities. In this framework, microfluidic devices have been used to engineer the mechanical and spatial stimuli and to investigate cellular migration response in a more controlled way. In this work, we will review the existing technologies employed in the realization of microfluidic cellular migration assays, namely the soft lithography of PDMS and hydrogels and femtosecond laser micromachining. We will give an overview of the state of the art of these devices, focusing on the different geometrical configurations that have been exploited to study specific aspects of cellular migration. Our scope is to highlight the advantages and possibilities given by each approach and to envisage the future developments in in vitro migration studies under spatial confinement in microfluidic device

The study of cellular migration dynamics and strategies plays a relevant role in the understanding of both physiological and pathological processes. An important example could be the link between cancer cell motility and tumor evolution into metastatic stage. These strategies can be strongly influenced by the extracellular environment and the consequent mechanical constrains. In this framework, the possibility to study the behavior of single cells when subject to specific topological constraints could be an important tool in the hands of biologists. Two-photon polymerization is a sub-micrometric additive manufacturing technique that allows the fabrication of 3D structures in biocompatible resins, enabling the realization of ad hoc biochips for cell motility analyses, providing different types of mechanical stimuli. In our work, we present a new strategy for the realization of multilayer microfluidic lab-on-a-chip constructs for the study of cell motility which guarantees complete optical accessibility and the possibility to freely shape the migration area, to tailor it to the requirements of the specific cell type or experiment. The device includes a series of micro-constrictions that induce different types of mechanical stress on the cells during their migration. We show the realization of different possible geometries, in order to prove the versatility of the technique. As a proof of concept, we present the use of one of these devices for the study of the motility of murine neuronal cancer cells under high physical confinement, highlighting their peculiar migration mechanisms.