Understanding the behaviour of nuclear materials in extreme conditions is of prime importance for the analysis of the operation limits of nuclear fuels, and prediction of possible nuclear reactor accidents, relevant to the general objectives of nuclear safety research. The main purpose of this thesis is the study of high temperature phase transitions in nuclear materials, with special attention to the candidate fuel materials for the reactors of the 4th Generation. In this framework, material properties need to be investigated at temperatures higher than 2500K, where equilibrium conditions are difficult to obtain. Laser heating combined with fast pyrometer is the method used at the European Institute for Transuranium Elements (JRC - ITU). It is associated to a novel process used to determine phase transitions, based on the detection, via a suited low-power (mW) probe laser, of changes in surface reflectivity that may accompany solid/liquid phase transitions. Fast thermal cycles, from a few ms up to the second, under almost container-free conditions and control atmosphere narrow the problem of vaporisation and sample interactions usually meet with traditional method. This new experimental approach has led to very interesting results. It confirmed earlier research for material systems known to be stable at high temperature (such as U-C) and allowed a refinement of the corresponding phase diagrams. But it was also feasible to apply this method to materials highly reactive, thus original results are presented on PuO2, NpO2, UO2-PuO2 and Pu-C systems.

Il est important de bien connaitre le comportement des combustibles nucléaires dans des conditions extrêmes afin d’assurer la sureté des réacteurs et de prévoir les conséquences d’un éventuel accident. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est l’étude des transitions de phase à très haute température de matériaux envisagés pour les combustibles nucléaires de quatrième génération. Dans ce but, une méthode a été développée à l’institut européen des transuraniens (ITU) pour étudier ces matériaux à des températures excédant 2500K. La technique utilisée consiste à chauffer l’échantillon à l’aide d’un laser de haute puissance et à mesurer sa température par pyrométrie. Le signal d’un second laser réfléchi par la surface de l’échantillon est aussi étudié afin de mieux caractériser les transitions de phase. Les avantages de cette technique résident dans la rapidité des expériences (de quelques dizaines de ms à quelques secondes), et dans le contrôle de l’atmosphère, ce qui permet de limiter les effets d’évaporation ou d’oxydation/réduction de l’échantillon. Il convient de signaler que seule la partie centrale de l’échantillon est fondue, la phase liquide sondée est ainsi confinée au sein de l’échantillon lui-même, ce qui évite toute interaction avec le système de fixation. Nos résultats sur les carbures d’uranium sont en accord avec ceux de la littérature, et ont permis d’affiner le calcul des diagrammes de phase pour ces matériaux stables à haute température. La technique que nous avons mise au point a été utilisée, pour la première fois, pour étudier des matériaux de haute activité. Des résultats originaux ont été obtenus sur les systèmes PuO2, NpO2, UO2-PuO2 et Pu-C. / Understanding the behaviour of nuclear materials in extreme conditions is of prime importance for the analysis of the operation limits of nuclear fuels, and prediction of possible nuclear reactor accidents, relevant to the general objectives of nuclear safety research. The main purpose of this thesis is the study of high temperature phase transitions in nuclear materials, with special attention to the candidate fuel materials for the reactors of the 4th Generation. In this framework, material properties need to be investigated at temperatures higher than 2500K, where equilibrium conditions are difficult to obtain. Laser heating combined with fast pyrometer is the method used at the European Institute for Transuranium Elements (JRC – ITU). It is associated to a novel process used to determine phase transitions, based on the detection, via a suited low-power (mW) probe laser, of changes in surface reflectivity that may accompany solid/liquid phase transitions. Fast thermal cycles, from a few ms up to the second, under almost container-free conditions and control atmosphere narrow the problem of vaporisation and sample interactions usually meet with traditional method. This new experimental approach has led to very interesting results. It confirmed earlier research for material systems known to be stable at high temperature (such as U-C) and allowed a refinement of the corresponding phase diagrams. But it was also feasible to apply this method to materials highly reactive, thus original results are presented on PuO2, NpO2, UO2-PuO2 and Pu-C systems.

No description available.

Pour comprendre les phénomènes physiques du noyau externe de la Terre, il est nécessaire d’étudier les propriétés structurelles et thermodynamiques des matériaux liquides qui y sont présents. Ainsi, les courbes de fusion du nickel et du cobalt permettent de contraindre la température à la frontière entre le noyau externe et le noyau interne (ICB). Cette Thèse présente l’étude de la courbe de fusion et de la structure locale du nickel et du cobalt liquide en conditions extrêmes de pression et température. L’analyse expérimentale a été effectuée par spectroscopie d'absorption des rayons X (XAS), technique bien adaptée à l’étude de la structure locale de la matière. Des calculs ab-initio permettent de valider le critère de fusion utilisé et de fournir une fonction de distribution radiale initiale pour l’analyse de la structure locale.Les courbes de fusion sont déterminées à partir des données d’absorption en utilisant un critère de fusion récemment proposé pour le fer. Ce critère est appliqué au cas du nickel et du cobalt. Le critère de fusion est basé sur la disparition de l’épaulement situé dans le seuil d’absorption des métaux 3d, et sur la disparition simultanée des deux premières oscillations du spectre d’absorption. Une sonde ionique focalisée (FIB) couplée à un microscope électronique à balayage (SEM) sont utilisés pour détecter post mortem les changements d’état de l’échantillon et confirmer ainsi le critère de fusion. Les courbes de fusion du nickel et du cobalt sont présentées jusqu’à des pressions de 1 Mbar. L’utilisation du critère de fusion est généralisable à tous les métaux 3d. La comparaison entre les courbes de fusion du nickel et du cobalt et celle du fer montre que la présence de ces deux matériaux dans le noyau externe de la Terre peut être négligée pour la détermination du profil de température dans la planète.Les calculs ab-initio montrent que la disparition des deux premières oscillations XANES est due au changement de densité des états électroniques p lors de la fusion et à la perte de l’ordre structural dans le liquide. Les calculs ab-initio valident le critère de fusion empirique utilisé lors des mesures XAS. Ces calculs permettent également d’évaluer la compression du cobalt liquide à 5000 K en fournissant une fonction de distribution radiale initiale pour l’analyse expérimentale du spectre d’absorption.Les oscillations EXAFS de la phase liquide du nickel et du cobalt sont analysées, permettant ainsi de déterminer la distance des premiers voisins en fonction de la pression. Les résultats expérimentaux montrent une compressibilité inférieure à celle prévue par les calculs ab-initio. Cette différence peut être interprétée comme une liaison atomique plus rigide entre premiers voisins ou comme une augmentation de 10 à 20% de la coordinence. Nos observations expérimentales, combinées aux calculs ab-initio, semblent montrer que la structure locale du nickel et du cobalt liquide dévie du model des sphères rigides.En conclusion, nous avons développé un protocole expérimental et théorique qui permet de valider le critère de fusion d’une structure donnée. Nous l’avons appliqué aux métaux 3d fcc afin de déterminer les courbes de fusion du nickel et du cobalt. La similitude entre ces courbes de fusion et celle du fer montre que la présence du cobalt et du nickel dans le noyau externe de la Terre peut être négligé pour la détermination de la température à l’ICB. L’étude des oscillations EXAFS des liquides à haute pression et haute température permet de déterminer la distance entre premiers voisins. Ces méthodes peuvent maintenant être appliquées à des liquides d’alliages complexes, plus pertinents pour les applications géophysiques. / Understanding the physical phenomena of our planet requires the capability to investigate the structural and thermodynamic properties of liquid-state materials present in the Earth's outer core. Thus, the melting curves of nickel and cobalt allow to constrain the temperature at the inner core boundary (ICB).This Thesis presents the study of the melting curves and the local structure of nickel and cobalt under extreme conditions. The experimental analysis was performed by X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), technique ideal for the study of the local structure. Ab-initio calculations were performed as well in order to validate the melting criterion adopted and to provide starting radial distribution function for the analysis of the local structure.The melting curves of nickel and cobalt were determined with the XAS melting criterion recently proposed for iron. The criterion consists in the flattening of the shoulder and the disappearance of the first two oscillations in the X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES). It has been validated with Focused Ion Beam (FIB) coupled with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis on the recovered samples, by means of a detection of textural changes in the sample. The melting temperature was detected for nickel and cobalt at different pressures, thus providing a measurement of the melting curve up to 1 Mbar for the two materials.A comparison of the melting curves of nickel and cobalt with iron shows that the presence of these two materials in the outer core of Earth gives a negligible contribution for the determination of the geotherm at the inner core boundary.Ab-initio calculations performed on cobalt provided an additional confirmation of the XAS melting criterion adopted. Moreover they permitted to understand that the flattening of the oscillations in the XANES is due to the smearing of the structures in the density of the p states linked to the different environments surrounding each absorbing atom in the liquid.These calculations allowed as well to evaluate the compression of liquid cobalt at 5000 K and provided a starting radial distribution function for the analysis of the experimental Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) extracted from the measured XAS.The EXAFS of the liquids along the melting curve was analysed providing a measurement of the first neighbour distance in the liquid as a function of pressure for both nickel and cobalt. In the two cases our experimental results show slightly less compression than theoretically predicted. This can be interpreted as a first neighbour bond that at higher pressures is slightly more rigid than predicted or as due to an increase of 10-20% of the coordination number.Combined to theory, our experimental observation suggests that the local structure of liquid Co and Ni increasingly deviates from a hard sphere model with P and T along the melting curve.In conclusion, we have developed a protocol that allows validating the melting criterion for a given solid structure. In this work it has been applied to 3d metals with fcc structures and it can be applied to other structures.The presence of nickel and cobalt in the outer core of Earth was found to be irrelevant for the determination of the temperature at the ICB.XAS was shown to be an adequate technique to measure the first neighbour bond under extreme conditions, although both experiment and theory have large margin for improvement. The application of this method to more complex liquid alloys opens the way to investigation of relevant geophysical systems.

Nesta dissertação são estudados três sistemas interfaciais, com o objetivo de observar o efeito do aquecimento localizado por laser. O primeiro sistema consistiu de filmes ultrafinos de níquel ftalocianina tetrasulfonada, com intercalantes diferentes (Zr e PDDA), analisados pela técnica fototérmica de lente térmica (LT). Foi montada uma instrumentação de LT completa, sendo a fonte excitante um laser de He-Ne de baixa potência (10 mW). Estes filmes, com diferentes números de camadas, foram imersos em solventes orgânicos e a transferência de calor na interface foi estudada através do ajuste do sinal de LT. Os dados obtidos revelaram a proporcionalidade do sinal de LT com o aumento do número de camadas e permitiram a determinação das difusividades térmicas dos solventes utilizados. O segundo sistema consistiu de monocamadas de hexadecanol depositadas na superfície de soluções de cristal violeta (CV). A superfície destas soluções foi aquecida a laser e a transferência do calor gerado foi detectada através de uma instrumentação de deflexão fototérmica transversa (PDB). Estes experimentos foram realizados em uma balança de superfície, com uma compressão controlada da mono camada. Foi observado um aumento da transferência de calor para o ar a partir de um certo ponto da isoterma de compressão da monocamada. O mecanismo de supressão de correntes de convecção por surfatantes é indicado como provável causador deste aumento de transferência de calor. O terceiro sistema consistiu na fabricação de filmes LB de ácido octadecanóico modificados pelo aquecimento do menisco durante a sua deposição. Uma instrumentação semelhante a empregada no segundo experimento serviu de base para estes experimentos, com o laser de excitação direcionado próximo ao substrato. Foram observadas as curvas de taxa de transferência e foram comparadas as morfologias do filme resultante deste aquecimento com filmes não aquecidos do ácido octadecanóico e do ácido octadecanóico na presença de Orange G (OG), o corante empregado para geração de calor. Nestes estudos morfológicos são apresentadas microscopia ópticas do filme, que mostram a formação de anéis no filme, provavelmente devido à evaporação da subfase. São também apresentadas imagens de microscopia de força atômica deste filme submetido a aquecimento, evidenciando o enrugamento da superfície em nível micrométrico, mostrando ser possível modificar o processo de formação de filmes através do aquecimento localizado. / In this dissertation three interfacial systems were examined, with the goal of observing the effect of localized laser-heating on them. The first studied system were ultrathin films of nickel tetrasulfophthalocyanine, with different compounds (Zr or PDDA), analyzed by thermal lens. A complete instrumentation of LT was mounted, being the exciting source a He-Ne laser of low power (10 mW) and low cost. These films, with different numbers of layers, had been immersed in organic solvents and the heat transfer through the interface was studied through mathematical fitting of the LT signal. The acquired data had disclosed the proportionality of the signal of LT with the increase in the number of layers and had allowed the determination of thermal diffusivities of the used solvents. Hexadecanol monolayers on the surface of Crystal Violet (CV) aqueous solutions were the second system to be studied. The surface of these solutions was laser-heated and the heat transfer to the air was detected through a photothermal beam deflection instrumentation (PDB). These experiments have been carried out in a surface balance to provide controlled compression of the monolayer. An increase in the heat transfer to the air from a certain point of the monolayer isotherm was observed. The mechanism of suppression of surface tension-induced convection by surfactants is proposed as the probable cause of such increase. LB films of octadecanoic acid were used in the third set of experiments, with the aim of modifying the film surface morphology by laser heating of the meniscus region during the deposition process. An instrumentation similar to the one employed in the previous experiment served as base for these experiments, with the laser of excitement pointed close to the substrate. The curves of transfer ratio had been observed and the morphologies of the laser-heated ?lm were compared to the non-heated films of octadecanoic acid with and without Orange G (OG, dye used as auxiliary for heat generation). Optical microscopy images from the laser-heated film were obtained, showing ring formation, probably due the evaporation of subphase. Also images of atomic force microscopy of this laser-heated film are shown, evidencing the wrinkling of the surface in micrometric level when compared to similar films from non-heated films. This behaviour shows the feasibility of modification in the process of formation of LB films through localised laser-heating.

A dusty plasma is a mixture of electrons, ions, neutral gas atoms, and small particles of solid matter (dust). In a dusty plasma produced in the laboratory, dust particles gain a large electric charge from the other charged species, so that their interparticle interactions can be very strong. Frequently, the average interparticle potential energy is higher than the thermal kinetic energy of the dust particles, and in this case, they constitute a strongly coupled plasma. As with all strongly coupled plasmas, the dust particles can behave like typical solids or liquids. In this thesis, I report the results of dusty plasma experiments that are focused on the behavior of liquids. I use a so-called two-dimensional (2D) dusty plasma that consists of only a single horizontal layer of dust particles. Tracking each particle with video microscopy and image analysis methods allows the calculation of important liquid properties, like the viscosity coefficient. In Chapter 2, I describe an improved laser heating method for producing liquid-like conditions in a 2D dusty plasma. Two laser beams are scanned across the dust layer in a new pattern to increase the kinetic energy of the particles and melt the ground state crystalline lattice. The new scanning pattern improves the randomness of the resulting particle motion so that it more closely resembles that of a liquid in a thermal equilibrium. In Chapter 3, I report a viscosity measurement in a dusty plasma that is unaffected by the complicating effects of temperature nonuniformities and shear thinning. This measurement is enabled by an addition to my experimental apparatus that I also detail here. I find the viscosity to be significantly higher than in previous measurements, which I attribute to the avoidance of shear thinning. In Chapter 4, I present measurements of viscosity using the Green-Kubo method, and compare the results to those of my previous measurement. I find that the two methods yield viscosity values that differ by about 60%, over the entire temperature range attained in the experiment. Possible sources of this difference are evaluated. Finally, in Chapter 5, I report the first experimental confirmation of a theoretical expression describing the decay of time autocorrelation functions. This theoretical expression fits experimentally calculated autocorrelation functions within error bars, especially at short times when a simple exponential decay fails. I also propose an intuitive description wherein an observed transition in the autocorrelation function is due to the onset of collisional scattering.

The primary goal of this research was to develop the laser chemical vapor deposition (LCVD) process to be able to directly deposit carbon nanotubes onto substrates selectively. LCVD has traditionally been used to directly deposit complex geometries of other materials, including many metals and ceramics. Carbon nanotube deposits were formed using codeposition and other techniques. Multiwall carbon nanotubes as small as 7 nm were synthesized. Utilizing electron microscopy, deposits were characterized to determine the effects of laser power, catalyst and hydrocarbon concentration, time, pressure, and other variables on the number of nanotubes formed, their size, and their spatial location. The most important variables were shown to be hydrocarbon and catalyst concentration and laser power. These results were analyzed and statistics based models were developed to express these trends. Additionally, the process was also used successfully to deposit linear patterns of carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotube deposits were also carried out in the presence of an electric field. It was demonstrated that a field of sufficient strength could be used to orient tube growth. LCVD is a thermally driven process and a thermal feedback and control system is typically employed to allow for real time control of the reaction zone temperatures. The current thermal imaging system installed on the LCVD reactor is limited to operation at temperatures above which nanotube deposition occurs. A heat and mass transport model was therefore developed to simulate deposition temperatures and provide an estimate of the desired laser power needed to achieve a desired reaction temperature. This model included all significant modes of heat transport including conduction, natural convection and radiation. Temperature dependant material properties were also employed to help achieve greater accuracy. Additionally, the model was designed to be able to simulate a scanning laser beam which was used to deposit linear patterns of carbon nanotubes. Modeling calculations of laser heating compared favorably with experimental data. The results of this work show that LCVD has potential for use in the commercial market for selective direct deposition of patterns of aligned carbon nanotubes on multiple substrate materials.

As metals have high formability at elevated temperatures, hot forming is preferred and widely used in manufacturing of complicated geometries. The term hot forming is usually used if the whole workpiece is processed at elevated temperatures. However, for certain products high formability is required only locally. Forming by local heating is proposed to provide ease of manufacturing of local forms on the workpiece. Also, tools can be simplified by this method. In this study, local laser heating procedures are applied to obtain local forms on cylindrical bulk metal products in a single step. Locally heated workpieces are formed between two flat dies. Both solid and hollow products have been investigated experimentally and by finite element modeling. The experimental studies and finite element analyses are done simultaneously in order to obtain optimum local deformation characteristics. Three different materials together with different initial geometries and various local laser-heating procedures are applied to search for the process window. The limits of applicability are determined and examples of application are supplied.

Nesta dissertação são estudados três sistemas interfaciais, com o objetivo de observar o efeito do aquecimento localizado por laser. O primeiro sistema consistiu de filmes ultrafinos de níquel ftalocianina tetrasulfonada, com intercalantes diferentes (Zr e PDDA), analisados pela técnica fototérmica de lente térmica (LT). Foi montada uma instrumentação de LT completa, sendo a fonte excitante um laser de He-Ne de baixa potência (10 mW). Estes filmes, com diferentes números de camadas, foram imersos em solventes orgânicos e a transferência de calor na interface foi estudada através do ajuste do sinal de LT. Os dados obtidos revelaram a proporcionalidade do sinal de LT com o aumento do número de camadas e permitiram a determinação das difusividades térmicas dos solventes utilizados. O segundo sistema consistiu de monocamadas de hexadecanol depositadas na superfície de soluções de cristal violeta (CV). A superfície destas soluções foi aquecida a laser e a transferência do calor gerado foi detectada através de uma instrumentação de deflexão fototérmica transversa (PDB). Estes experimentos foram realizados em uma balança de superfície, com uma compressão controlada da mono camada. Foi observado um aumento da transferência de calor para o ar a partir de um certo ponto da isoterma de compressão da monocamada. O mecanismo de supressão de correntes de convecção por surfatantes é indicado como provável causador deste aumento de transferência de calor. O terceiro sistema consistiu na fabricação de filmes LB de ácido octadecanóico modificados pelo aquecimento do menisco durante a sua deposição. Uma instrumentação semelhante a empregada no segundo experimento serviu de base para estes experimentos, com o laser de excitação direcionado próximo ao substrato. Foram observadas as curvas de taxa de transferência e foram comparadas as morfologias do filme resultante deste aquecimento com filmes não aquecidos do ácido octadecanóico e do ácido octadecanóico na presença de Orange G (OG), o corante empregado para geração de calor. Nestes estudos morfológicos são apresentadas microscopia ópticas do filme, que mostram a formação de anéis no filme, provavelmente devido à evaporação da subfase. São também apresentadas imagens de microscopia de força atômica deste filme submetido a aquecimento, evidenciando o enrugamento da superfície em nível micrométrico, mostrando ser possível modificar o processo de formação de filmes através do aquecimento localizado. / In this dissertation three interfacial systems were examined, with the goal of observing the effect of localized laser-heating on them. The first studied system were ultrathin films of nickel tetrasulfophthalocyanine, with different compounds (Zr or PDDA), analyzed by thermal lens. A complete instrumentation of LT was mounted, being the exciting source a He-Ne laser of low power (10 mW) and low cost. These films, with different numbers of layers, had been immersed in organic solvents and the heat transfer through the interface was studied through mathematical fitting of the LT signal. The acquired data had disclosed the proportionality of the signal of LT with the increase in the number of layers and had allowed the determination of thermal diffusivities of the used solvents. Hexadecanol monolayers on the surface of Crystal Violet (CV) aqueous solutions were the second system to be studied. The surface of these solutions was laser-heated and the heat transfer to the air was detected through a photothermal beam deflection instrumentation (PDB). These experiments have been carried out in a surface balance to provide controlled compression of the monolayer. An increase in the heat transfer to the air from a certain point of the monolayer isotherm was observed. The mechanism of suppression of surface tension-induced convection by surfactants is proposed as the probable cause of such increase. LB films of octadecanoic acid were used in the third set of experiments, with the aim of modifying the film surface morphology by laser heating of the meniscus region during the deposition process. An instrumentation similar to the one employed in the previous experiment served as base for these experiments, with the laser of excitement pointed close to the substrate. The curves of transfer ratio had been observed and the morphologies of the laser-heated ?lm were compared to the non-heated films of octadecanoic acid with and without Orange G (OG, dye used as auxiliary for heat generation). Optical microscopy images from the laser-heated film were obtained, showing ring formation, probably due the evaporation of subphase. Also images of atomic force microscopy of this laser-heated film are shown, evidencing the wrinkling of the surface in micrometric level when compared to similar films from non-heated films. This behaviour shows the feasibility of modification in the process of formation of LB films through localised laser-heating.

No description available.