A current controversy in the science of visual consciousness is whether conscious awareness of a stimulus emerges gradually or appears directly in an all-or-none fashion. Windey et al. (2013) observed that evidence supporting the gradual explanation often used low-level stimuli (simple shapes, colours), while evidence for a dichotomous divide of awareness used high-level stimuli (letters, numbers). Windey later constructed the level of processing (LoP) hypothesis, which states that different stimulus levels impact the transition to awareness, i.e. whether it occurs gradually or in an all-or-none fashion. Koivisto et al. (2017) further showed, using high-level stimulus, that different conceptualizations of awareness (detection and identification) impact different electrophysiological correlates of awareness. Specifically, the visual awareness negativity (VAN) only occurred for awareness based on detection, while the late positivity (LP) occurred for both detection and identification. The purpose of this thesis is to further investigate the VAN and LP for detection and identification, but with a low-level stimulus. Following the level of processing hypothesis, I expect that the mean amplitudes will be more negative in the VAN time range and more positive in the LP time range for identification trials compared to detection trials. Similarly, I expect VAN and LP to occur for both detection and identification. Unfortunately, the current results did not find any significant differences due to the low sample size. However, the results for the identification threshold hint towards a VAN but no LP.

Neural networks underpinning working memory demonstrate sign language specific components possibly related to differences in temporary storage mechanisms. A processing approach to memory systems suggests that the organisation of memory storage is related to type of memory processing as well. In the present study, we investigated for the first time semantic, phonological and orthographic processing in working memory for sign- and speech-based language. During fMRI we administered a picture-based 2-back working memory task with Semantic, Phonological, Orthographic and Baseline conditions to 11 deaf signers and 20 hearing non-signers. Behavioural data showed poorer and slower performance for both groups in Phonological and Orthographic conditions than in the Semantic condition, in line with depth-of-processing theory. An exclusive masking procedure revealed distinct sign-specific neural networks supporting working memory components at all three levels of processing. The overall pattern of sign-specific activations may reflect a relative intermodality difference in the relationship between phonology and semantics influencing working memory storage and processing.

Syftet med denna studie är att utforska hur individer upplever sin prestation och själva inlärningssituationen då kunskap som ska läras in på ett språk ska återges på deras modersmål i form av tentamen eller i andra diskussionssituationer. Sex personer intervjuades om deras upplevelser att läsa kurslitteraturen på ett främmande språk och sedan återge den inlärda kunskapen på deras modersmål, i detta fall, svenska. Intervjumaterialet analyserades utifrån induktiv tematisk metod. Ur analysen framträdde tre huvudteman: förståelse av innehåll, förmågan att kunna uttrycka sig och slutligen, översättningsproblematiken. Den första två teman visade att prestation inte anses bli negativt påverkad av att den inlärda kunskapen ska återges på modersmålet. Tvärtom, kurslitteraturens språk förlorar betydelse så snart budskapet uppfattas av läsaren. / The aim of the current study is to explore how individuals see their performance and the learning situation itself when material presented in a certain language has to be recounted in the individual's mother tongue in the form of exams or discussion. Six people were interviewed about their experiences of reading textbooks in a foreign language and then recounting the acquired knowledge in their mother tongue, in this case, Swedish. Inductive thematic approach was used to analyse the interview data. During analysis three main themes emerged: understanding the content, the ability to express oneself and finally, translation-related problems. The first two themes showed that recounting acquired knowledge in the mother tongue is not considered to have a negative influence on performance. On the contrary, as soon as the reader comprehends the message the language of the textbook becomes irrelevant.

No description available.

The differential effectiveness of two types of adjunct embedded questions in facilitating deep processing, increased knowledge gain, and increased positive attitude change was examined in this two-session laboratory study. In session one, subjects completed a measure of locus of control (LOC) orientation, as well as measures of pretest knowledge and attitudes regarding drinking. Two weeks later, stratified assignment was used to place 33 subjects (ages 12 to 15) in one of the three levels of question condition (no questions, factual questions, and inference questions) to study a computer-based instructional program about alcohol education during the second session. Subjects assigned to either of the two embedded question conditions were asked to answer ten questions embedded between segments of interactive video. Depending on question condition, subjects were asked to provide factual information or draw inferences and conclusions regarding the previous video segment. After each question, subjects were asked to rate the amount of effort required to answer the preceding question. Control group subjects viewed interactive video without embedded questions or effort rating scales. Reaction-time trials were distributed throughout the multimedia program and were received by all subjects to establish a baseline reaction-time measure. Immediately following the instructional program, subjects completed posttest measures of knowledge and attitudes regarding alcohol. Results provided limited support for the hypothesis that embedded questions would facilitate positive attitude change; however, embedded questions did not appear to facilitate knowledge gain. Results also provided support for the hypothesis that subjects with internal LOC orientations would be associated with greater positive changes in knowledge gain. Other hypotheses related to depth of processing were not supported by the results of this study. No differences were observed between embedded question types on the reaction-time and mental effort rating measures of depth of processing. Furthermore, no differences were observed across LOC orientation on either of the depth of processing measures. A number of methodological issues are thought to have contributed to this limited support of the hypotheses in this study. These issues, and their potential impact and solutions are discussed with respect to future research. / Ph. D.

The ability to extract meaning from text is an important skill. Yet many students struggle with effectively comprehending what they read. In comparison with research carried out with younger students, there is a lack of research in the reading comprehension of adolescents (Grades 4 – 12). The goal of this dissertation was to increase our understanding of the factors that underlie the poor reading comprehension abilities of this older group of students. This dissertation includes two studies drawn from a sample of 137 age 15 year old high school students. Study One utilized archival data from government mandated tests of reading achievement of 78 students administered in Grades 3, 6, and 10, and results from a commercially available test of reading comprehension administered in Grade 10. This longitudinal study examined the prevalence of the stability, cumulative growth, and compensatory models in reading comprehension development. Probabilities of later-grade reading achievement categorization conditioned on earlier-grade reading achievement were computed, the prevalence of developmental paths was estimated, and tests of regression to the mean were conducted. Overall findings suggest considerable stability across time. Study Two examined the specificity of the comprehension weaknesses of 15 year old readers whose comprehension skills are below those expected from their skill in word reading and nonverbal ability (unexpected poor comprehenders). Regression analyses identified unexpected poor comprehenders, and two contrast groups (expected average and unexpected good comprehenders). Characteristics of unexpected poor comprehenders are examined after controlling for word-reading accuracy, phonological decoding, reading rate, nonverbal ability, and vocabulary. Findings indicate a critical disadvantage of unexpected poor comprehenders lies in their weakness in vocabulary and that comprehension difficulties related to the identification of details and main ideas in summary writing remain when vocabulary is controlled. Implications for interpreting previous and informing future research are discussed. Results of both studies are discussed with respect to the nature of the reading comprehension construct, identification and remediation of reading comprehension difficulties, and the assessment of reading comprehension. / Thesis (Ph.D, Education) -- Queen's University, 2012-08-28 13:32:25.641

Denna studie hade till syfte att undersöka vilka metoder för ordinlärning med fokus på betydelse som förekom i textböcker för SFI kurs B och C. Frågeställninggen förankrades teoretiskt i tidigare språkvetenskaplig och psykologisk forskning om ordinlärningsmetoder. Fyra textböcker granskades för att identifiera och kategorisera ordinlärningsmetoder med fokus på betydelse enligt Nations (2011) kategorisering av betydelserelaterade aspekter av ordkunskap (associationer, begrepp och referens, form-betydelsekoppling). Därefter analyserades fynden enligt Cummins fyrfältsmodell (2017). Resultatet visade att en typ av aktivitet inom aspekten begrepp och referens (svara på frågor som innehåller målorden) dominerade och utgjorde över 50% av de betydelserelaterade ordinlärningsaktiviteterna i textböckerna. Det var också den enda typen av aktivitet inom begrepp och referens. För aspekterna associationer och form-betydelsekoppling förekom varierande aktiviteter. Därmed erbjuder böckerna en variation av metoder för inlärning av ordbetydelser inom två aspekter men endast en metod inom en aspekt. Detta begränsar vägarna till att främja inlärarens lärandeprocess då fler metoder kan erbjuda olika positiva effekter på ordinlärning.

L’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère nécessite une quantité considérable de temps et d’efforts. Les apprenants doivent faire face à de nombreux défis dans cet apprentissage, dont le traitement des sons qui n'existent pas dans leur langue maternelle. La différence entre les propriétés de la langue maternelle et de la langue étrangère entraîne des distorsions dans la perception et un accent dans la production des sons non-natifs. De plus, ces difficultés persistent à tous les niveaux de traitement, car les problèmes de perception et de production d’un son influencent le traitement des mots contenant ces sons. Heureusement, la capacité à percevoir et à produire les sons de la L2 (langue seconde) s’améliore progressivement. Cette thèse porte sur le traitement phonologique de la L2 et son développement à travers les modalités (perception vs. production) et les niveaux de traitement (niveau prélexical vs. lexical). Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous étudions la relation entre la perception et la production en L2. Les résultats des études précédentes ont souvent été contradictoires et nous suggérons que plusieurs limitations méthodologiques aient pu y créer des confusions. Nous avons donc pris en compte ces limitations méthodologiques et nous avons développé un paradigme expérimental afin de tester la perception et la production du contraste français /u/-/y/ par des apprenants anglophones. Nous avons utilisé des tâches qui visent le traitement prélexical et lexical afin d'examiner si le lien entre les deux modalités, s’il en existe un, est maintenu à travers les niveaux de traitement. Les résultats ont montré que la perception et la production sont corrélées, mais uniquement au niveau prélexical. De plus, nous avons trouvé que le développement de la perception précède celui de la production car il faut d’abord bien percevoir un son non-natif afin de le produire correctement. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons poursuivi l’étude du traitement phonologique à travers les niveaux de traitement en nous concentrant sur la perception du son anglais /h/ par des apprenants francophones. Nous avons d’abord examiné si les difficultés à percevoir ce son précédemment signalées au niveau prélexical posaient également problème au niveau lexical. De plus, nous avons examiné si l’asymétrie observée dans la production (les francophones omettent le /h/ plus souvent qu’il ne l’insèrent) était présente dans la perception. Les résultats ont révélé que les apprenants francophones ont du mal à percevoir des mots et des non-mots contenant le /h/. De plus, une performance asymétrique a été observée. Nous avons interprété ceci comme une indication que les représentations phonologiques des mots anglais contenant le /h/ sont imprécises chez les apprenants francophones. Dans un second temps, nous avons examiné si un entraînement phonétique pouvait améliorer la perception du /h/ non seulement au niveau prélexical, mais également au niveau lexical. Nous avons démontré que l’entraînement phonétique améliorait la perception du /h/ dans les deux niveaux de traitement. De plus, cet effet positif a été maintenu quatre mois après l’entraînement. Enfin, nous avons examiné si les asymétries dans la perception du /h/ au niveau lexical pouvaient s'expliquer par des asymétries au niveau prélexical. Un tel lien n’a cependant pas été observé dans les résultats. Dans l’ensemble, cette thèse démontre que les mécanismes sous-jacents au traitement de la parole en L2 sont complexes et dynamiques, et influencent ainsi la perception et la production tant à travers les modalités qu’à travers les niveaux de traitement. Enfin, des pistes pour les recherches futures, qui permettraient d’explorer davantage les liens entre ces éléments du traitement phonologique, sont proposées. Cela mènerait à une compréhension plus approfondie des processus impliqués dans l’acquisition de la L2. / Learning a foreign language (L2) is a difficult task, requiring considerable amounts of time and effort. One of the challenges learners must face is the processing of sounds that do not exist or are not used contrastively in their native language. The mismatch between the properties of the native language and the foreign one leads to distortions in the perception of non-native sounds and to foreign accent in their production. Moreover, these difficulties persist across levels of processing as problems in prelexical L2 sound perception and production influence the processing of words containing these sounds. Fortunately, with growing proficiency the abilities to perceive and produce L2 sounds gradually improve, although they might never attain native-like levels. This thesis focuses on L2 phonological processing and its development across modalities (perception vs. production) and across levels of processing (prelexical vs. lexical). In the first part of the thesis, we investigate the relationship between perception and production in L2. Previous literature has provided contradictory evidence as to whether perception and production develop in parallel. We hypothesized that several methodological limitations could have brought confounds in some of these previous studies. We therefore designed an experiment that addressed these methodological issues and tested proficient English learners of French on their perception and production of the French contrast /u/-/y/ that does not exist in English. We included tasks that tap into both prelexical and lexical levels of processing in order to examine whether the link between the two modalities, if any, holds across levels of processing. Results showed that perception and production were correlated, but only when tested with tasks that tap into the same level of processing. We next explored if the developments in one modality precede developments in the other and found that good perception is indeed a prerequisite for good production. In the second part of the thesis, we continue to investigate the phonological processing of L2 across levels by focusing on the perception of the English sound /h/ by intermediate to proficient French learners of English. We first studied if the poor perception of this sound previously reported at the prelexical level also causes problems at the lexical level. We also looked at whether asymmetries found in production (i.e. more deletions than insertions) are reflected in perception. The results revealed that French learners of English have difficulty in perceiving /h/-initial words and non-words at the lexical level. Moreover, an asymmetry was indeed observed in their performance, which was interpreted as an indication that French learners of English have imprecise phonological representations of /h/-initial but not of vowel-initial words. Second, we carried out a training study to test if phonetic training could improve the perception of /h/ not only at the prelexical, but at the lexical level as well. We found that the High Phonetic Variability training did improve the perception of /h/ both at the prelexical and lexical levels, and that this positive effect was retained four months after training. Finally, we examined if asymmetries in the perception of /h/ at the lexical level could be explained by asymmetries at the prelexical level. The results revealed no such relationship. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the complex and dynamic nature of the mechanisms underlying non-native speech processing and its development during learning both across modalities and across levels of processing. We discuss how future research could further explore the links between these elements of the phonological processing apparatus to get a better understanding of L2 acquisition.