The dissertation lays the foundations for a naturalistic account of word meaning capable of addressing the conflicting intuitions that word meanings are both “out there”, world-involving and objective (the “objectivist” intuition) and in the heads of speakers, i.e. cognitive and perspectival (the “mentalist” intuition). The strong naturalization constraint endorsed in this project has it that the sought-after syncretic notion of word meaning must be nonmysterious and constitute a potential object for the natural sciences. The objectivist intuition is discussed within the framework of semantic externalism and the theory of semantic deference. Whereas the importance of the phenomenon of semantic deference (i.e. the fact that speakers defer to semantic standards for the fixation of the meaning of their words) is recognized, it is shown that taking the normativity of meaning evidenced by semantic deference at face value leads to embracing a form of meaning objectivism that is incompatible with naturalism. On the one hand, the objectivist/externalist commitment to independent meaning-determining realities could be stronger than the commitments actually undertaken by the natural sciences themselves. On the other hand, the degree of idealization inherent in the objectivist account makes it oddly disconnected from and ultimately irrelevant to actual linguistic practice. However, usage-based accounts – which have meanings determined by the way words are actually used rather than determined “from outside” – notoriously struggle to provide a satisfactory account of the normativity of meaning. The proposed move consists in biting the bullet and treating the inherent normativity of meaning as a form of cognitive illusion, albeit an unavoidable illusion and one which must be taken seriously in order to explain the properties of linguistic understanding. A strictly usage-based account is shown to be viable and even to be able to account for the objectivist explanandum, once it is coupled with biological functionalism. Word meanings “out there” turn out to be viable natural objects, yet quite unlike the apparent objects of our pre-theoretical intuitions. “Complete”, world-involving word meanings are complex functional kinds (like organs or artifacts) constituted (rather than determined) by speakers’ actual dispositions and relevant environmental factors. As such, complete meanings – whether at the communal level (conventional meanings) or at the level of the individual speaker (idiosyncratic patterns of use) – are essentially opaque to speakers and can only be identified from a theoretical point of view on the basis of functional considerations. Moreover, the environmental factors intuitively corresponding to the traditional notion of objective reference or extension cannot be considered independently of the other internal and relational meaning-constitutive factors. The view of meaning defended is thus supportive of a certain form of anti-realism, where reference and truth are relativized to evolved interests, yet it is not supportive of any global form of anti-realism, for the presuppositions of biological normativity still provide a realist anchor to natural-language meanings. From this theoretical perspective, the mentalist intuition is taken to concern the internal, cognitive sub-components of complete meanings. Internal meanings are the cognitive kinds associated with word types (lexical meanings) or word tokens (ways in which words are understood/interpreted on an occasion of use). It is argued that internal meanings – whether stable or occasion-specific – have an irreducible abstract dimension for which no naturalistically plausible worldly counterpart is to be found. The experience of aboutness of the concepts intuitively encoded and expressed by words is again to be treated as a cognitive illusion, on a par with the illusion of the inherent normativity of word meaning. However, the abstract nature of internal meanings explains some of the key properties of linguistic understanding – aboutness, compositionality, co-reference – without which productive thought and linguistic communication would be impossible. The proposed account thus makes room for compositional-extensional semantics and shared understanding, as long as these are fully internalized. The connection with the external components of complete meanings is indirect, mediated by procedures whose workings are to a large extent opaque to users. The main consequence of the proposed framework is the incommensurability of internal meaning and complete meaning, and therefore a rejection of the possibility of an articulation of internal meaning and complete meaning compatible with the commonsense view from which traditional accounts of semantic deference and semantic externalism are built.Cette thèse jette les bases d’une théorie naturaliste de la signification des mots à même de rendre compte de deux intuitions en apparence conflictuelles :d’une part, l’intuition selon laquelle les significations des mots ont une existence extérieure objective et impliquent le monde (l’intuition « objectiviste ») ;d’autre part, l’intuition selon laquelle les significations sont dans la tête des locuteurs, c’est-à-dire correspondent à des réalités cognitives et perspectivales (l’intuition « mentaliste »). La contrainte naturaliste assumée dans ce projet veut que la notion syncrétique de signification que l’on cherche à développer puisse constituer un objet potentiel d’investigation pour les sciences naturelles, c’est-à-dire qu’elle soit, au moins en principe, localisable dans le monde naturel. L’intuition objectiviste est débattue dans le cadre de l’externalisme sémantique et de la théorie de la déférence sémantique. Bien que l’importance du phénomène de la déférence sémantique (le fait que les locuteurs défèrent à des standards sémantiques pour la fixation de la signification des mots qu’ils emploient) soit pleinement reconnue, l’argument poursuivi mène à la conclusion que la normativité de la signification que semble imposer la déférence sémantique ne doit pas être prise pour argent comptant, sous peine d’épouser une forme d’objectivisme de la signification incompatible avec le projet de naturalisation stricte. D’une part, l’engagement ontologique objectiviste/externaliste vis-à-vis de réalités indépendantes déterminant les significations pourrait être plus fort que les engagements ontologiques implicites des sciences naturelles elles-mêmes. D’autre part, le degré d’idéalisation propre au point de vue objectiviste le rend étrangement détaché de la pratique linguistique effective, et en définitive sans pertinence pour rendre compte de celle-ci. Cela étant dit, les théories fondées sur l’usage – pour lesquelles les significations sont déterminées par la façon dont les mots sont effectivement employés plutôt que déterminées « de l’extérieur » – sont en général critiquées pour leur incapacité à rendre compte de la normativité de la signification. La proposition que fait la thèse consiste à assumer cette conséquence d’une théorie fondée sur l’usage et à considérer la normativité intrinsèque de la signification comme une forme d’illusion cognitive, bien qu’une illusion inévitable et devant être prise au sérieux s’il s’agit d’expliquer les propriétés remarquables de la compréhension linguistique. Une théorie strictement fondée sur l’usage est viable et même capable de rendre compte de l’intuition objectiviste, une fois que cette théorie est couplée avec un fonctionnalisme biologique. Les significations « extérieures » des mots sont bien des objets naturalisables, quoique fort différents des objets apparents de nos intuitions pré-théoriques. Les significations « complètes », c’est-à-dire impliquant le monde, correspondent à des espèces fonctionnelles complexes (à la manière des organes ou des artéfacts) qui sont constituées (plutôt que déterminées) par les dispositions effectives des locuteurs et les facteurs environnementaux pertinents. En tant que telles, les significations complètes – que ce soit au niveau de la communauté linguistique (significations conventionnelles) ou au niveau du locuteur individuel (usages idiosyncrasiques) – sont fondamentalement opaques pour les locuteurs et ne peuvent être identifiées qu’à partir d’un point de vue théorique externe et sur base de considérations fonctionnelles. En outre, les facteurs environnementaux correspondant intuitivement à la notion traditionnelle de référence ou d’extension objective ne peuvent être considérés indépendamment des autres facteurs internes et relationnels constitutifs de la signification. La théorie de la signification défendue suggère donc une certaine forme d’anti-réalisme, dans lequel la référence et la vérité sont relativisées à des intérêts spécifiques produits par l’évolution naturelle. Cette théorie ne sert pour autant guère d’appui à un quelconque anti-réalisme global, car les présupposés de la normativité biologique continuent à fournir un ancrage réaliste aux significations linguistiques. Une fois cette perspective théorique sur les significations impliquant le monde adoptée, on fait la supposition que l’intuition mentaliste concerne les sous-composantes internes et cognitives des significations complètes. Les significations internes sont les espèces cognitives associées avec les types lexicaux (significations lexicales) et avec les tokens lexicaux (façons dont les mots sont compris/interprétés lorsqu’ils sont employés). Il est avancé que les significations internes – qu’elles soient stables ou propres à une occasion d’usage – ont une composante abstraite irréductible à laquelle ne correspond aucune contrepartie mondaine acceptable d’un point de vue naturaliste. L’expérience de l’ « être-à-propos » (aboutness) des concepts intuitivement encodés et exprimés par les mots doit encore une fois être considérée comme une illusion cognitive, à l’instar de l’illusion de la normativité intrinsèque de la signification. Cependant, la nature abstraite des significations internes explique certaines des propriétés centrales de la compréhension linguistique – être-à-propos, compositionnalité, co-référence – sans lesquelles la pensée productive et la communication proprement linguistique seraient impossibles. La théorie proposée fait donc une place à la sémantique compositionnelle-extensionnelle et à la compréhension partagée, pour autant que celles-ci soient complètement internalisées. La connexion avec les composantes externes des significations complètes est indirecte, médiée par des procédures dont le fonctionnement est en grande partie opaque aux utilisateurs du langage. La conséquence principale du cadre proposé est l’incommensurabilité de la signification interne et de la signification complète et, partant, le rejet de la possibilité d’une articulation entre les deux types de signification qui soit compatible avec le point de vue de sens commun à partir duquel sont construites les théories traditionnelles de la déférence sémantique et de l’externalisme sémantique. / Doctorat en Langues et lettres / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Leksiniai sinonimai – skirtingai skambantys, tos pačios ar artimos reikšmės žodžiai, kurie skiriasi semantinėmis, emocinėmis, stilistinėmis ypatybėmis. Darybiniais sinonimais laikomi skirtingų darybos afiksų bendrašakniai dariniai, turintys tapačią arba artimą leksinę ir darybinę reikšmę. Į leksinių sinonimų eiles dažnai įeina ir darybinių sinonimų eilės. Antano Lyberio Sinonimų žodyne (2002) pateiktose leksinių sinonimų eilėse rastas 4471 daiktavardžių, būdvardžių, veiksmažodžių darinys, iš kurių sudarytos 1836 darybinių sinonimų eilės. Bendrašakniai dariniai, kaip ir leksiniai sinonimai, gali sutapti ar skirtis stilistinėmis ypatybėmis. Daugumas sinonimiškai santykiaujančių darinių yra artimos semantikos žodžiai. Analizuojant darybinius sinonimus leksinių sinonimų eilėse pastebėta, kad ne visi žodžiai, esantys Lietuvių kalbos žodyne ir Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne, yra įtraukti į A. Lyberio Sinonimų žodyną. Remiantis šių žodynų medžiaga, į Sinonimų žodyną siūloma įtraukti 800 žodžių ir pratęsti 82 leksinių sinonimų eiles. Iš į Sinonimų žodyną neįtrauktų darinių sudarytos 123 naujos darybinių sinonimų eilės: į 94 eilių sudėtį įeina Sinonimų žodyne fiksuotas darinys, 29 darybinių sinonimų eilės sudarytos vien iš naujų darinių. Sinonimų žodyne rasta žodžių, kurie nefiksuojami nei Lietuvių kalbos žodyne, nei Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodyne, todėl nėra aišku, kokiu kriterijumi remiantis jie buvo įtraukti į žodyną. / Lexical synonyms are differently sounding words of the same or close meaning that are different by semantic, emotional or stylistic features. Derivative synonyms are structures of different affix with identical or close lexical and derivation meaning. Lexical synonyms rows often included derivative synonyms rows. Dictionary of Synonyms (Sinonimų žodynas, 2002) by Antanas Lyberis submitted lexical synonyms rows were found 4471 noun, adjective and verb derivatives, which were made 1836 derivative synonyms rows. Conjugate structures, as well as lexical synonyms, may be the same or vary by stylistic features. Most of the derivatives, having synonymous relationships, are close semantic words. Analysis of derivative synonyms in lexical synonym rows noted that not all the words in Lithuanian Language Dictionary (Lietuvių kalbos žodynas), Current Lithuanian Dictionary (Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas) are included in Dictionary of Synonyms by Antanas Lyberis. According to these dictionaries material, it is proposed to include 800 words extend 82 lexical synonym rows in Dictionary of Synonyms. Were made 123 new derivative synonym rows from the words that were not included into Dictionary of Synonyms: 94 rows containing fixed derivatives of Dictionary of Synonyms, 29 derivative synonym rows consisting entirely of new structures. In Dictionary of Synonyms were found words not included into Lithuanian Language Dictionary, Current Lithuanian Dictionary, so it is not clear by which... [to full text]

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:07:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 KarlianeFN.pdf: 2687270 bytes, checksum: 030c127f4ec27d1e8f2d78a1475b9ddf (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-06-01 / Apresentamos, neste trabalho, com base na sem?ntica cognitiva, uma an?lise do significado, em contexto, dos auxiliares modais poder, precisar e dever. Analisamos 120 textos produzidos por candidatos ao vestibular e por alunos do ensino fundamental, como resposta da quest?o n?mero tr?s da prova discursiva de L?ngua Portuguesa do vestibular 2005 da UFRN, que pede aos candidatos para explicitar a diferen?a de sentido entre tr?s frases, observando o uso desses tr?s verbos. Consideramos que um item lexical n?o ? incorporado a uma representa??o ling??stica sem?ntica fixa, limitada e ?nica, mas antes, ? ligado a uma representa??o ling??stica sem?ntica flex?vel e aberta que prov? acesso a muitas concep??es e sistemas conceituais dependente de cada contexto determinado. Com base em seu significado, um item lexical evoca um grupo de dom?nios cognitivos, que por sua vez, apresentam um determinado conte?do conceitual. Isto implica em afirmar que a rede de significados lexicais vai variar conforme o conhecimento de mundo de cada um (LANGACKER, 2000). A relev?ncia deste trabalho ? proporcionar uma contribui??o para a descri??o sem?ntica do portugu?s / We present, in this work, based on cognitive semantics, an analysis of the meaning in context of the modal auxiliaries can, need and must. We analysed 120 texts produced by applicants for university entrance examinations and primary school students as answer to question number three of the Portuguese Language discursive test, in the entrance examinations for UFRN, that asked the candidates to explicit the difference in meaning between three sentences, observing the use of those three verbs. We consider that a lexical item is not incorporated by a steady semantic structure, limited and unique, but instead, it is linked to an open and flexible linguistic semantic representation that provides access to many conceptions and conceptual systems depending on each determined context. Based on its meaning, a lexical item evokes a group of cognitive domains, which present a determined conceptual content. This makes possible to affirm that the net of lexical meanings will vary according to the world knowledge each one has (LANGACKER, 2000). The relevance of this work is provide a understanding of the semantic decription of portuguese

Работа посвящена выявлению смыслового своеобразия лексем «доброволец» и «волонтер» в современном русском литературном языке. Рассмотрена структура лексического значения каждого из изучаемых слов, их семантическая эволюция. Показана специфика функционирования лексем «доброволец» и «волонтер» в речевой коммуникации. / The work aims at identifying the semantic originality of the lexemes «dobrovolets» and «volunteer» in the modern Russian language. There is considered the structure of the lexical meaning for each of the studied words, as well as their semantic evolution, and the specifics of these lexemes’ functioning in verbal communication.

The youngest word class type used to arouse great interest and discussions when entering the grammar; in some countries (e. g. in Germany) particles have been an object of systematic research. However, many other languages still lack a complex description of particles as a class on its own - they represent an appropriate material also for comparative researches. Differences in functioning and theoretical treatment of particles have been present in typologically different languages but they can emerge also in related languages, even in the case of Slovak and Czech. Lexicographical and grammar descriptions of these languages provide only small sets of particles (in Slovak roughly amounting to 400, in Czech exceeding 200) and are usually divided by authors into small groups and further on into even smaller subgroups. Due to specific features as well as to paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations with other language or speech phenomena even one particle or a couple of them or a narrowly defined group of particles can become an object of individual scientific and research projects. Step by step, our thesis presents the development of attitudes towards particles as an independent word class in general and in Russian linguistics in particular, grammar descriptions of particles in Slovak, Czech and other...

The diploma thesis focuses on the so called "false friends" in contemporary Czech and Polish. Both languages are first introduced in the context of their linguistic and typological features as relevant to the subject of the thesis. Particular attention is paid to the differences between the two languages, and therefore possible language interferences. Furthermore, the paper discusses the issue of so called "false friends" and, based on the studies of E. Lotko, there were selected four types of false friends (grammatical (according to the grammatical gender of the noun), lexicographical, stylistic and valency false friends) and discussed more. Those lexical units are first characterized in general terms, and are then focused on the apecific "false friends" contained in the Common European Framework of Reference (levels A1-B1 for Czech as a foreign language). The second part of the thesis (based on the acquired theoretical knowledge) tries to design and recommend a methodology for working with so called "false friends" in the teaching of Czech as a foreign language to the target group of native Polish speakers. This includes worksheets for students as well as the methodology for teachers. Key words False friends, Interlanguage homonymity, Czech language, Polish language, Common European Framework of...