In this thesis, I explore the use of copulas in non-copula constructions in the languages of South Asia to establish possible genetic and areal tendencies in the distribution. Using materials – language descriptions and data – from Grierson’s Linguistic Survey of India, I examine the phenomenon in 206 languages from four families (Munda, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan). It is found that the languages of South Asia appear to be more likely than the world-wide average to use the copula in non-copula constructions and that at least Munda, Dravidian and Indo-Aryan use it in the same way with regards to tense, namely in the past and present but not the future. Finally, I argue that there is some evidence supporting that the use of the copula in non-copula constructions is an areal feature, though more work is needed to make any definitive conclusions.

La familia lingüística kawapana del nororiente peruano está conformada por los idiomas shiwilu y shawi, también conocidos como jebero y chayahuita respectivamente. Por lo común, se suele categorizar a las lenguas kawapana como entidades lingüísticas “amazónicas”. No obstante, el presente estudio demuestra que estas comparten semejanzas gramaticales apreciables con las familias centro-andinas quechua y aimara, así como con otros idiomas de las tierras bajas relativamente cercanos. Dicha convergencia sería el resultado de cambios lingüísticos inducidos por el contactoo la difusión indirecta. Además de develar el complejo perfil gramatical delas lenguas kawapana, el presente estudio proporciona evidencia en favor de un área lingüística intermedia entre la Amazonía y los Andes, de la cual los idiomas kawapana formarían parte. / The kawapana linguistic family of northeastern Peru is formed by shiwilu and shawi languages, also known as Jebero and Chayahuita respectively. Ordinarily, it is usually categorize kawapana languages as “Amazonian” linguistic entities. However, this study shows that they share significant grammatical similarities to the central-andean quechua and aymara families, as well as other languages of the relatively nearby lowlands. This convergence would be the result of linguistic changes induced by contact or indirect dissemination. In addition to unveiling the complex grammatical profile of languages kawapana, this study provides evidence in favor of an intermediate language area between the Amazon and the Andes, of which kawapana languages form part.

TITLE Czech-German (Austrian) language relations - possibilities for language interference SUMMARY This diploma thesis examines the language interference between the Czech and the German in the field of gastronomy. This phenomenon is reflected in the composition of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. The last area has been selected for a research. I decided to analyze 180 menu cards in the nine states of Austria. In those menu cards I tried to discover 13 in advance chosen words, which have been used in the Central-European language area according to Newerkla. Appearance of those 13 words in menu cards proves mutual language influence between the Czech and the German in each state of Austria. The research, I conducted, shows that the most influenced states are Vienna, Lower and Upper Austria. Probably the main reason for the result is that in these areas the most intensive political and economic cooperation between Czechs and Austrians took place.

Polarity-reversing affirmative particles are a phenomenon that has largely been overlooked in previous research. A polarity-reversing affirmative particle is used to express disagreement with the polarity of a preceding negative statement. It is a typical answer strategy in Swedish, German, Dutch as well as in French. In fact, findings from previous cross-linguistic studies suggest, though without further detail, that polarity-reversing affirmative particles are a phenomenon predominantly found in European and more specifically in Germanic languages (Da Milano 2004; Roelofsen & Farkas 2015; Moser 2018). The aim of this study is to examine the hypotheses presented in Moser (2018). The goals are to investigate the distribution of polarity-reversing affirmative particles in Europe on the one hand, and to examine the phenomenon in Swedish, German, Dutch and French from a diachronic perspective on the other hand. On the basis of these endeavors, this study is embedded in the framework of areal typology. This study brings forth highly interesting findings in view of the discussion of Standard Average European and the Charlemagne Sprachbund. / Polarity-reversing affirmative particles (sv. polaritetsomvändande affirmativa partiklar) är ett fenomen som har förbisetts i tidigare forskning. En polarity-reversing affirmative particle används för att uttrycka oenighet med ett negativt påstående. Det är en vanlig strategi i svenska, tyska, nederländska samt franska. Tidigare resultat från tvärspråkliga studier visar att polarity-reversing affirmative particles oftast förekommer i europeiska, mer specifikt germanska språk (Da Milano 2004; Roelofsen & Farkas 2015; Moser 2018). Denna studie ämnar undersöka resultaten från de ovannämnda studierna. Målet är således att undersöka distributionen av polarity-reversing affirmative particles i Europa samt att undersöka fenomenet i svenska, tyska, nederländska och franska från ett diakroniskt perspektiv. Denna studie anknyter till ett arealtypologiskt perspektiv. Resultaten påvisar intressanta rön med direkt relevans för Standard Average European och i den så kallade Charlemagne-arean.