The ethanol industry in Western Canada has seen significant growth in recent times spurred on mainly be environmental considerations. For a region with substantial grain production, increased prices from additional demand by the biofuel industry may inure to the benefit of grain farmers and land owners in the long term. The livestock industry however remains in a complex position facing the possibility of higher feed costs on the one hand and potential savings in feed cost on the other, with the availability of distillers grains- a by-product from ethanol production. The sectorial implications for the livestock sector could also be diverse and dependent upon the capacity to incorporate the distillers grains into the different feed rations. There is also the possibility of a spill-over effect from the US distillers grains market. This study therefore sought to complement current nutritional research by providing an economic perspective of the impact of distillers grains on the livestock industry in Western Canada. Focussing primarily on the beef cattle and hog industries, the study applied both linear programming and time-series techniques to assess potential benefits and costs. Potential positive economic benefits were observed for the inclusion of wheat and corn distillers grains with the former having a higher economic value in the high-protein feed segments.<p> Dependent on market factors such as the price of substitute feeds, exchange rates and transportation considerations, the magnitude of these savings could range between $7.29 and $0.34/tonne. The study recommends an understanding of these dynamics in order for livestock and ethanol producers to derive mutual benefits from the fledging biofuel industry in the Western plains.

The ethanol industry in Western Canada has seen significant growth in recent times spurred on mainly be environmental considerations. For a region with substantial grain production, increased prices from additional demand by the biofuel industry may inure to the benefit of grain farmers and land owners in the long term. The livestock industry however remains in a complex position facing the possibility of higher feed costs on the one hand and potential savings in feed cost on the other, with the availability of distillers grains- a by-product from ethanol production. The sectorial implications for the livestock sector could also be diverse and dependent upon the capacity to incorporate the distillers grains into the different feed rations. There is also the possibility of a spill-over effect from the US distillers grains market. This study therefore sought to complement current nutritional research by providing an economic perspective of the impact of distillers grains on the livestock industry in Western Canada. Focussing primarily on the beef cattle and hog industries, the study applied both linear programming and time-series techniques to assess potential benefits and costs. Potential positive economic benefits were observed for the inclusion of wheat and corn distillers grains with the former having a higher economic value in the high-protein feed segments.<p> Dependent on market factors such as the price of substitute feeds, exchange rates and transportation considerations, the magnitude of these savings could range between $7.29 and $0.34/tonne. The study recommends an understanding of these dynamics in order for livestock and ethanol producers to derive mutual benefits from the fledging biofuel industry in the Western plains.

The cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, has a debilitating effect on the livestock industry worldwide, owing to its being a vector of the causative agents of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis. In South Africa, co-infestation of livestock with R. microplus and R. decoloratus occurs. An alternative to chemical control methods is sought in the form of an anti-tick vaccine. Using microarray technology, this study aimed at identifying genes that are shared between midgut tissues of adult female R. microplus and R. decoloratus ticks. In addition, results from another study were used and a reverse vaccinology pipeline was devised to identify putative novel vaccine candidates. Using a custom oligonucleotide microarray comprising 13 477 R. microplus sequences, 2476 genes were found to be shared between the two abovementioned tick species. In addition, 136 were found to be more abundantly expressed in R. decoloratus and 1084 in R. microplus. Chi-square analysis revealed that genes involved in lipid transport and metabolism are significantly over-represented in R. microplus and R. decoloratus. With vaccine design in mind, considering genes that are expressed in the midgut of both tick species, 6730 genes were identified and of these, 1224 are predicted to contain membrane-spanning helices. One major limitation to anti-tick vaccine discovery in the past has been a lack of candidates to evaluate, combined with limited knowledge of the transcriptome of R. microplus. This study identified a large pool of transcripts that are expressed in the midgut of both R. microplus and R. decoloratus adult females. Of these, those that are expressed in larvae, nymphs and the midgut were identified in another study and an in silico pipeline was used to predict membrane-bound protective antigens using an alignment-free approach, which led to the identification of seven proteins that were predicted to be both glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored and more likely than Bm86 to be protective antigens. Finally, epitopes were predicted and corresponding synthetic peptides were evaluated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), resulting in the identification of three epitopes that are recognized to a greater extent than previously published Bm86 epitopes, when using murine serum raised against membrane proteins from the midgut of R. microplus. These results are significant because novel R. microplus proteins that are also present in R. decoloratus were identified. Trials using recombinant protein are under way and this will ultimately validate the experimental methodology discussed in this dissertation. Finally, regardless of whether the next-generation anti-tick vaccine has been discovered, this study also led to the identification of novel reference genes that can be used for real-time PCR experiments. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Biochemistry / Unrestricted

Important implications of the study are: beef cow-calf production is competitive over a wide range of beef prices and it may increase farm returns to feed small amounts of corn silage rather than grow additional pasture even when the weaned steer calf-corn ratio is quite low. / Master of Science

General Problem Cattlemen of south central Utah in Sevier and Wayne County areas have been plagued for the past twenty-five or thirty years by a malady known to the cattleman as "Brisket Disease." It is a chronic disease affecting both male and female of all ages. It is characterized in advance stages by enlargement of the brisket and throat regions, loss of appetite, a general unthrifty condition and marked ascites. The seriousness of the disease is indicated by a morbidity rate varying from one to five percent of the cattle grazing these areas with almost one hundred percent mortality rate. Many of the people of these southern Utah counties depend largely on livestock for their livelihood. In order for the livestock industry of these counties to operate as an economical and profitable enterprise, a better performance of the animals on summer ranges and a decrease in the death loss must be obtained. Scope The information contained in this thesis is the result of observation and data collected from the cattle grazing on 7-mile, U. M, and Sheep Valley Ranges, during the summers of 1948 through 1953. The work reported consists of forage analyses, blood analyses, liver biopsies, gross and histopathological studies of the tissues of affected animals. Controlled experiments were carried out to note if mineral supplements would prevent the disease. The sick animals were treated on the range at the same elevation to see if they could be cured. Purpose The purpose for undertaking the study was to determine the etiology and nature of the disease as it is manifested by symptoms and pathology; and to develop methods of treatment and control.

The control of ticks, and to some extent tick-borne diseases, over much of South Africa is currently dependent on acaricides and will probably remain so for the foreseeable future. Resistance to these chemicals by ticks thus poses a major threat to the livestock industry especially as these chemicals constitute an ever-diminishing resource with fewer being discovered and the cost of their development becoming prohibitive. In order to determine the extent of acaricide resistance in the eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province one-, two- and three-host ticks were collected from cattle at 58 dip-tanks over a period of 2 years. The one-host tick selected was Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, the two-host tick Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi and the three-host tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. The ticks were tested for resistance to three compounds, namely amitraz, cypermethrin and chlorfenvinphos. The Shaw Larval Immersion Test detected emerging resistance to amitraz in the one-host tick R. (Boophilus) microplus at two dip-tanks and resistance at a third. It also revealed resistance in this tick to cypermethrin at one dip-tank, and emerging resistance to chlorfenvinphos at eight dip-tanks and resistance at two. The two-host tick R. evertsi evertsi was susceptible to amitraz and cypermethrin at all dip-tanks, but showed emerging resistance to chlorfenvinphos at seven dip-tanks and resistance at four. The three-host tick R. appendiculatus was susceptible to amitraz and chlorfenvinphos at all dip-tanks and demonstrated emerging resistance to cypermethrin at one. With the exception of R. (Boophilus) microplus, in which emerging resistance to amitraz was detected at one dip-tank by the Reproductive Estimate Test, all three tick species at all dip-tanks at which sufficient numbers of ticks had been collected, were susceptible to the three acaracides in both the Egg Laying Test and the Reproductive Estimate Test. Thus despite its fairly long and widespread use in the eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province very little or no resistance to amitraz was detected in three tick species regularly encountered on cattle in this region, namely R. (Boophilus) microplus, R. evertsi evertsi and R. appendiculatus. On the other hand resistance to chlorfenvinphos was detected in both R. (Boophilus) microplus and R. evertsi evertsi at a number of dip-tanks even though it, or other organophosphorous-based compounds, had probably not been used for tick control in the region for a number of years. The localities at which ticks were collected had already been mapped and the localities at which acaricide resistant ticks were encountered were mapped during this study. The three tick species that were targeted for acaricide resistance testing were widespread throughout the study region, but no pattern of geographic distribution for the acaricide resistant strains of these species that were detected, emerged. The rapidity of selection for acaricide resistance appeared to be closely related to the life cycles of the three ticks and the number of days that they theoretically would spend annually on their preferred host animals. Thus a greater number of acaricide resistant strains were encountered amongst the one-host tickR. (Boophilus) microplus and the two-host tick R. evertsi evertsi than the three-host tick R. appendiculatus. The fist two ticks both complete more than one life cycle a year and hence spend a longer time on their cattle hosts than the three-host tick R. appendiculatus, which completes only one life cycle a year and in addition is a rapid feeder in all its stages of development. To counter selection for acaricide resistance it is proposed that regular testing for resistance should be carried out, and that as soon as emerging resistance is detected in ticks on cattle at a particular dip-tank, that the acaricide in use at that dip-tank should be changed to a compound belonging to a completely different group of chemicals. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / unrestricted

Poisonous plants are one of the most important causes of economic losses in the livestock industry throughout the world, especially in those areas where rangeland and pasture grazing are practiced. In the livestock industry in South Africa, total annual costs of plant and fungal poisoning (mycotoxicosis) are conservatively estimated to be R104 506 077, 8% of which is due to D. cymosum poisoning. There is no antidote for D. cymosum poisoning of livestock and wide scale eradication by conventional control methods are labour intensive, expensive and often impractical. In South Africa, the communal or emerging farming sectors are the most affected. This is mainly due to the high costs associated with control measures such as fencing, supplementary feeding and veterinary expenses, and / or lack of grazing management with livestock numbers exceeding the biological carrying capacity of the rangeland due to lack of grazing lands. Proper rangeland management is the surest and most economical means of reducing plant poisoning of livestock. Focused research on the ecology of these poisonous plants in rangeland communities to improve rangeland management would assist in the development of these strategies. This study investigated D. cymosum infested savanna communities, focusing on understanding how negative (inter- and intraspecific competition) interactions influence community structure, dynamics and productivity and how plants in D. cymosum communities avoid these negative interactions by investigating their seasonal phenological patterns. Dichapetalum cymosum coexists with trees, such as Burkea africana, Ochna pulchra and Terminalia serecia, as well as shrubs species, such as Pygmaeothamnus zeyheri and Perinari capensis, in well drained, nutrient poor soils. Some plant ecologists contend that in an environment where water is limited, competition is inevitable amongst plants occupying the same above-ground stratum and the same soil horizon. Others contend that plants avoid competition with each other by sharing resources spatially and temporarily. Field experiments were conducted to investigate how the above species interact and coexist with each other in two South African savanna communities. Fourteen (100 m x 100 m) D. cymosum infested sites were identified in each community. Disperal analysis using nearest neighbour distance was used to investigate competition among species, and above ground flowering phenology along niche axes to determine temporal and spatial sharing of resources. The dispersal analysis revealed aggregated populations among species when intraspecific and combined (all individuals independent of species) analyses were conducted. However, in all instances, aggregation among species was not significant. No interspecific competition was observed among species when correlation analysis was performed between nearest neighbour distance and combined canopy cover of the nearest neighbour pair. Intraspecific competition was, however, observed for tree species T. sericea (n = 128; r = 0.3952; P < 0.0001) and B. africana (n = 166; r = 0.49926; P <0.0001) and a shrub species, D. cymosum (n = 391; r = 0.39788; P <0.0001). Segregation was found between O. pulchra and both B. africana (S = 0.999, χ² = 102.7588, P <0.0001) and T. sericea (S = 0.999, χ² = 57.8571, P <0.0001). Shrub species were also segregated, all with interspecific nearest neighbour pairs occurring less often than expected. The vegetative phenology of all experimental plant species followed the rainfall gradient. Differences in reproductive phenologies were observed between O. pulchra and both B. africana and T. sericea. Dichapetalum cymosum also differed from P. capensis and P. zeyheri in their reproductive phenologies. The differences in the reproductive strategies of at least one of the species in each growth form account for the observed spatial distribution amongst species in these communities. The observed growth patterns shown by the vegetative phenologies, however, suggest that lengthy retention of nutrients is a strategy to avoid competition for nutrient uptake with other species in these communities. Segregation between species and positive correlation iii between nearest neighbour distance and combined canopy cover of the nearest neighbour pairs suggest that intraspecific competition and interspecific facilitation determine D. cymosum woody plant community structure. This study had limited application to rangeland management. However, it can be concluded that grazing of D. cymosum communities should take place during mid-summer, when enough grazing material is available to allow animals to vary their diet. The introduction of animals in poor condition or naïve animals into these lands should be avoided in winter and spring as they will graze non-selectively resulting in D. cymosum poisoning. To utilize these areas as grazing lands, supplements need to be provided to assist in the detoxifications of toxins once ingested. / Dissertation (MSc Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Valuation draws heavily on the economic theory of demand. This tells us that users have preferences for water and are willing to pay different amounts for units of water put to different uses. Water should be allocated between these uses to the point that equalises the value of the last or 'marginal' unit. In other words, it is impossible to find a higher value for this marginal unit. Application of this principle of equi-marginal returns requires us to have some clarity about water values in competing uses. This is also important since water is rarely free to supply, and therefore suppliers need to charge a price that is in some sense equal to the supply cost and value to achieve full cost recovery. Even though inclusion of this economic rationale in the management of water resources has been a widely accepted principle, and is included in national and the EU policies, the actual practice does not fully reflect this endorsement. While many countries recognise the vital nature of water resources, few, if any, pursue a rigorous analysis of revealing the explicit value of water as a basis for determining whether water is actually being allocated to sectors in order to maximise its overall benefit to society. Aspiring to be the first Hydro Nation, maximising the social return from its water uses ought to be a policy objective in Scotland. This thesis constructs a portfolio of different water uses, estimating the approximate value for each and their current allocation in Scotland. This aims to stimulate an informed debate on actual allocation of water among different uses, relative values and trade-offs of these allocations in Scotland so that alternative allocation scenarios can also be discussed. I then focus on the valuation of water by manufacturing industries, the biggest consumptive use and a significant added value creator in Scotland. I investigate the factors that affect the valuation of water and the responsiveness to prices in manufacturing industries using a meta-analysis technique. These values are obviously not the same for each manufacturing sector due the nature of their use and value of their final output. Some sectors create premium value out of their use. The whisky industry stands out as a water-intensive and high value creating sector, as well as a vital contributor to the rural and overall Scottish economy. It is analysed here as the first case study using water footprint and marginal productivity analyses methods, both analyses highlighting the importance of quality and quantity of local water resources in Scotland and its value to the industry. The second case study is the livestock industry, which has been overlooked in the valuation of water use literature yet is significant for livelihoods in rural Scotland where reduced land capability limits agricultural production options. Following the portfolio of water uses, meta-analysis and case studies that analyse the current situation of value and allocation, I explore how the current situation can be improved through the application of tradability. Currently the main problem in Scotland is not the amount of water used or abstracted, but the pollution reaching water bodies as the result of run-off and leaching from agricultural fields. Therefore, the feasibility of trading water rights is more concerned with the permits to pollute rather than the rights to use. Using a linear optimisation I look into the potential of designing a payment for ecosystem services scheme based on tradability of water pollution in agricultural catchments that are affected by from diffuse pollution. The results indicate that trading schemes help reduce the cost of pollution to all users while creating additional income for farms. For constructing more precise pollution rights and robust schemes more research efforts are required.