Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and DBS of the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) have been shown to be effective surgical therapies for Parkinson’s disease (PD). To better understand the PPN and STN as DBS targets for PD, this research compares the anatomy, electrophysiology, and motor control roles of these nuclei. PPN and STN connections were examined in vivo in human subjects and in the non-human primate using probabilistic diffusion tractography. Both the PPN and STN were connected with each other and with the motor cortex (M1) and basal ganglia. After studying these anatomical connections in primates, their functional significance was further explored in an anesthetized rat model of PD. Examination of the electrophysiological relationship between the PPN and basal ganglia in the presence of slow cortical oscillatory activity suggested that excitatory input from the STN may normally modulate PPN spike timing but that inhibitory oscillatory input from the basal ganglia output nuclei has a greater effect on PPN spike timing in the parkinsonian brain. To examine transmission and modulation of oscillatory activity between these structures at higher frequencies, LFP activity was recorded from the PPN and STN in PD patients performing simple voluntary movements. Movement-related modulation of oscillatory activity predominantly occurred in the α (8-12 Hz) and low β (12-20 Hz) frequencies in the STN but in the high β (20-35 Hz) frequencies in the PPN, supporting observations from rodent studies suggesting that oscillatory activity is not directly transmitted from the STN to the PPN in PD. Finally, to better understand the roles of the STN and PPN in large-scale movement, the effects of STN and PPN DBS on gait abnormalities in PD patients were studied. DBS of the STN appeared to improve gait by optimising executive gait control while DBS of the PPN appeared to restore autonomic gait control. These results have several implications for DBS patient selection, surgical targeting, and for understanding the mechanisms underlying DBS efficacy.

Le rythme lent lié à la respiration est une caractéristique proéminente de l’activité du bulbe olfactif de rat. Il se définit par des oscillations de grande amplitude du potentiel de champ local, une activité de décharge des cellules mitrales/ à panache (M/P) synchronisée à la respiration et des oscillations lentes de leur potentiel de membrane (OPLM). Des relations spécifiques entre ces activités détermineraient la participation d’une cellule M/P au traitement de l’information olfactive. Jusqu’à présent, il n'existait que très peu de données sur ces relations. L’objectif de cette thèse a été de caractériser les OLPM des cellules M/P et d’étudier les relations qu’elles entretiennent avec l’activité de décharge et l’activité du réseau bulbaire. Pour répondre à cet objectif, nous avons mis au point une technique d’enregistrements simultanés de l’activité intracellulaire des cellules M/P et du potentiel de champ local du bulbe olfactif chez l’animal anesthésié et libre de respirer. Nous montrons que plusieurs types d’OLPM existent. Des relations spécifiques s’établissent entre ces OLPM et la synchronisation de l’activité de décharge à la respiration. Nous observons également l’existence de relations complexes entre les OLPM et les oscillations du réseau bulbaire. L’ensemble de ces résultats nous permet d’intégrer la dynamique lente, et plus particulièrement celle du potentiel de membrane, à un schéma général du traitement de l’information olfactive et de proposer son implication dans la formation d’assemblée de neurones. / The respiration-related slow rhythm strongly shapes the activity of the olfactory bulb. This rhythm is characterized by high amplitude oscillations in the local field potential, respiration synchronization of mitral/tufted (M/T) cell discharge and slow oscillation of M/T cell membrane potential (OLPM). Specific relationships between these activities could determine the M/T cell participation to olfactory processing. However, little is known on these relationships. The aim of my thesis has been to characterize M/T cell OLPM and to study the relationships between OLPM and both discharge and bulbar network activities. In this way, we recorded simultaneously intracellular activity of M/T cell and local field potential of olfactory bulb in anesthetized freely breathing rat. We showed that several types of OLPM can be distinguished and exhibited specific relationship with the respirations ynchronization of M/T cell discharge activity. We observed also specific and complex relationships between OLPM and local field potential oscillation. Taken together, our results allowed us to integrate slow rhythm, and more particularly OLPM, in the more general scheme of olfactory processing.

Chez les mamifères terrestres, l’échantillonnage des odeurs (flairage) est inextricablement lié à la respiration. Le flairage contraint à la fois le décours temporel et l’intensité de l’input olfactif. Or le flaireage est un acte dynamique, il peut varier aussi bien en fréquence qu’en débit. Dans une 1ère partie de mon travail de thèse, nous avoins souhaité caractériser l’impact des variations de fréquence et de débit respiratiore sur l’activité du bulbe olfactif. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point une méthode de double trachéotomie chez le rat anesthésié nous permettant de contrôler précisément les flux d’air ans la cavité nasale. En paralèlle, nous avons enregistrer l’acitivité unitaire et de réseau du bulbe olfactif. Nous montrons que les variations de flairage modulent la représentation neuronale bulbaire des odeurs en modifiant à la fois l’activité de décharge des cellules principales et l’occurence des oscillaations du potentiel de champ local. Dans une 2e partie de ma thèse, nous avons souhaitécomprendre quel pouvait être le rôle du flairage chez un animal qui se comporte. Nous avons posé l’hypothèse qu’un animal pouvait adapter sa façon de flaireer en fonction de la qualité des molécules odorantes. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons mis au point un système d’enregeistrement non invasif de la respiration couplé à une tâche de discrimination olfactive chez le rat. Nous montrons non seulement que les animaux peuvent adapter leur flairage en fonction des molécules odorantes masi également en focntion du contexte dans lequel l’odeur est présentée. L’ensemble de ces résultats s’intègre donc dans la problématique plus générale de l’intégration sensori-motrice. / In terrestrial mammals, an inextricable link between olfaction and respiration exists due to the periodic sampling of odorant molecules by inhalation. The features of sniffing (or breathing) constrain both the timing and the intensity of the input to the olfactory structures. But rather than being fixed, sniffing in the bahavingrodent is highly dynamic and varies both in frequency and flow rate. During the firs stage of my PhD, I asked to what extent sniffing parameters (frequency and flow rate) variations could affect the olfactory bulb activity. To address this question, I developped a double tracheotomy protocol in anesthetized rats to precisely control and modify the nasal airflow. In parallel, I recorded oldfactory bulbactivities, single-unit activity and local field potentials. We showed that, at the olfactory bulb level, the neutral representation of an odor is highly modified by sampling variations. In fact both the mitral/tufted cell discharge patterns and local field potentials oscilliations were affected by sniffing variations. In the second stage, we wanted to understand the role of sniffing variations in behaving animals. We hypothesized tha t an animal could adapt its sniffing strategy relative to the quality of the odorant molecules. To test this hypothesis, we developped a tool to record sniffing in a non invasive way, and combined it to an olfactory discrimination task in the rat. We showed that animals not only adapted their sniffing relative to the odorant quality but also to the odorant context. Taken together, these results fit into the broader context of sensory-motor integration.

Durch Kreuzkorrelation von ECoG- und EEG-Signalen hoher Bandbreite (10 - 400 Hz) mit dem Muster eines Amplituden - Zeit - Templates von 10 ms Dauer können Subpotentiale (SP) selektiert werden, die dem sogenannten ?local field potential? ähnlich sind.Diese Ähnlichkeit ergibt sich i. durch den Vergleich mit dem ermittelten Amplituden - Zeit - Template des SP. ii. durch den Vergleich mit der Lage der Quellstrukturen zur ableitenden Elektrode. Die SP - Modulanalyse liefert Potentialverteilung für jede untersuchte Elektrode. Diese ist stets in ein Nahfeld und Fernfelder organisiert, wobei die Polarität des Nahfeld der Polarität des Trigger- SP entspricht und das Fernfeld von entgegengesetzter Polarität ist. Diese Quellstrukturen sind um so kleiner, je geringer der Elektrodenabstand ist. iii. aus der Kohärenz von SP, die im Ableitfeld auftreten. Dafür wurde die SP- Zweikanalkopplungsanalyse entwickelt.Die einzelnen Schritte dieser SP - Methode, die sich aus der SP - event-, SP - Modul- und SP - Zweikanalkopplungsanalyse zusammensetzt, werden beschrieben und an einem Beispiel einer 30 kanaligen subduralen interiktalen ECoG - Ableitung eines Patienten mit fokaler Epilepsie unter drei verschiedenen Bedingungen (normales ECoG, ECoG mit spikes bzw. ECoG mit slow waves) sowie am Beispiel einer 30 kanaligen EEG-Ableitung eines Probanden unter drei verschiedenen kognitiven Anforderungen (relaxierte Wachheit, Kopfrechnen, beim Anhören eines Hörspiels) vergleichend demonstriert. Beide Beispiele sind repräsentativ für zwei größere Untersuchungsreihen. / We obtained subpotentials (SP), similar to so called ?local field potentials? by application of cross - correlation on ECoG- and EEG- Signals with large band width (10 - 400 Hz) with the pattern of an amplitude-time-template with a duration of 10ms. This similarity is given by i. the comparison with obtained amplitude-time-template of the SP ii. the comparison with the position of source- structures to the deriving electrode. The potential distribution is given by the SP - moduleanalysis for each investigated electrode. This SP - module - analysis is always organised in a near- and in a far-field. The polarity of the near-field corresponds to the trigger-SP and the far-field to the opposite. The smaller the source-structure, the lower the distance of the electrodes iii.the coherence of SP in the deriving array The SP - method, consisting of SP - event, SP - module and SP ?two-channel-coupling -analysis? is described. The comparison between an example of an 30 channel subdural interictal derived ECoG of a patient, who was suffering from focal epilepsy, under three conditions (normal ECoG, ECoG with spikes and ECoG with slow-waves) and one of an 30 channel derived EEG of a candidate under three different cognitive demands (relaxed vigilance, doing mental arithmetic, listening to a radio serial) is demonstrated an discussed. Both examples are representatives for two extensive serials.

Neurons can respond to input by firing isolated action potentials or spikes. Sequences of spikes have been linked to the encoding of neuron input. However, many neurons also fire bursts; mechanistically distinct responses consisting of brief high-frequency spike firing. Bursts form separate response symbols but historically have not been thought to encode input. However, recent experimental evidence suggests that bursts can encode input in parallel with tonic spikes. The recognition of bursts as distinct encoding symbols raises important questions; these form the basic aims of this thesis: (1) What inputs do bursts encode? (2) Does burst structure provide extra information about different inputs. (3) Is burst coding robust against the presence of noise; an inherent property of all neural systems? (4) What mechanisms are responsible for burst input encoding? (5) How does burst coding manifest in in-vivo neurons. To answer these questions, bursting is studied using a combination of neuron models and in-vivo hippocampal neuron recordings. Models ranged from neuron-specific cell models to models belonging to three fundamentally different burst dynamic classes (unspecific to any neural region). These classes are defined using concepts from non-linear system theory. Together, analysing these model types with in-vivo recordings provides a specific and general analysis of burst encoding. For neuron-specific and unspecific models, a number of model types expressing different levels of biological realism are analysed. For the study of thalamic encoding, two models containing either a single simplified burst-generating current or multiple currents are used. For models simulating three burst dynamic classes, three further models of different biological complexity are used. The bursts generated by models and real neurons were analysed by assessing the input they encode using methods such as information theory, and reverse correlation. Modelled bursts were also analysed for their resilience to simulated neural noise. In all cases, inputs evoking bursts and tonic spikes were distinct. The structure of burst-evoking input depended on burst dynamic class rather than the biological complexity of models. Different n-spike bursts encoded different inputs that, if read by downstream cells, could discriminate complex input structure. In the thalamus, this n-spike burst code explains informative responses that were not due to tonic spikes. In-vivo hippocampal neurons and a pyramidal cell model both use the n-spike code to mark different LFP features. This n-spike burst may therefore be a general feature of bursting relevant to both model and in-vivo neurons. Bursts can also encode input corrupted by neural noise, often outperforming the encoding of single spikes. Both burst timing and internal structure are informative even when driven by strongly noise-corrupted input. Also, bursts induce input-dependent spike correlations that remain informative despite strong added noise. As a result, bursts endow their constituent spikes with extra information that would be lost if tonic spikes were considered the only informative responses.

Par sa connectivité directe avec le cortex, le noyau subthalamique (NST) représente une des structures d'entrée du système des ganglions de la base, et se trouve impliqué dans différents aspects du comportement (contrôle moteur, cognitif et limbique). Néanmoins, les corrélats électrophysiologiques de ces processus restent débattus. Les études effectuées dans le cadre de cette thèse visent à éclaircir le rôle possible du NST dans trois fonctions exécutives, à savoir l'inhibition réactive (suppression d'un mouvement programmé), l'inhibition proactive (préparation à inhiber son mouvement) et l'attention soutenue. Pour ce faire, les activités extracellulaires et/ou en potentiels de champs locaux du NST ont été enregistrées chez 28 patients parkinsoniens pendant qu'ils effectuaient des taches cognitives, visant à dissocier les corrélats de ces différentes fonctions exécutives. Dans une première étude, les activités en potentiel de champs locaux du NST lors de l'inhibition réactive et proactive ont été étudiées à l'aide d'un paradigme modifié du « stop signal ». L'inhibition réactive se caractérise par une augmentation rapide de synchronisation relative de l'activité du NST dans la bande de fréquence β (13-35 Hz), tandis que l'inhibition proactive se caractérise par la maintenance tonique d'un niveau élevé d'activité β qui prédit les performances des patients lors de l'inhibition réactive. Dans la seconde étude, nous avons montré qu'une population neuronale (n=7 neurones) augmente rapidement sa fréquence de décharge lors de l'inhibition réactive. Enfin, dans la troisième étude, nous avons utilisé un paradigme permettant de moduler le niveau attentionnel requis pour réaliser un comportement simple. Nos résultats indiquent qu'une baisse d'activité β est observée uniquement lorsque le sujet maintient une attention soutenue pour encoder, retrouver en mémoire une information afin de produire une réponse. L'ensemble de ces résultats nous ont permis d'apporter des preuves électrophysiologiques de l'implication du NST dans ces différentes fonctions et de clarifier la dynamique temporelle des activités neuronales supportant ces processus. Ils suggèrent ainsi l'hypothèse d'une implémentation de différents aspects du contrôle exécutif dans le NST via des mécanismes communs et interactifs dont la dynamique temporelle permettrait la modulation fine du comportement. / The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is an input structure of the basal ganglia implicated in many behavioral processes (motor, cognitive and limbic control). However the electrophysiological correlates of these processes remain unclear. This thesis aims to clarify the role of the STN during 3 executive functions: reactive inhibition (suppression of a prepotent move), proactive inhibition (preparation to inhibit a move) and sustained attention. To this end, extracellular and local field potential activities were recorded in 28 patients with Parkinson's disease while they performed cognitive tasks, aiming to dissociate the neural correlates of these executive functions In a first study, local field potentials β (13-35 Hz) activity was recorded in the STN during reactive and proactive inhibition. Reactive Inhibition was related to a relative increase of β activity, while proactive inhibition was related to maintenance of a tonic level of β activity predictive of reactive inhibitory performances. In a second study, we showed that reactive inhibition is related to a phasic increase of firing rate in a neuronal subpopulation (n=7 neurons). In a third study, we recorded Local field potentials in the STN while patients performed a sustained attention-demanding task (combining a visual search and a delayed match-to-sample paradigm) and found a systematic suppression of 15-35 Hz activity during each repetition of the task directly related to the amount of attention allocated by the participants. Altogether, these results present electrophysiological evidences of the implication of the STN in these functions and clarify the temporal dynamics of neuronal activities supporting these processes. These results may suggest an implementation of various executive functions in the STN via common and interactive mechanisms which temporal dynamics would mediate behavioral control.

<p>Interval timing, defined as timing and time perception in the seconds-to-minutes range, is a higher-order cognitive function that has been shown to be critically dependent upon cortico-striatal circuits in the brain. However, our understanding of how different neuronal subtypes within these circuits cooperate to subserve interval timing remains elusive. The present study was designed to investigate this issue by focusing on the spike waveforms of neurons and their synchronous firing patterns with local field potentials (LFPs) recorded from cortico-striatal circuits while rats were performing two standard interval-timing tasks. Experiment 1 demonstrated that neurons in cortico-striatal circuits can be classified into 4 different clusters based on their distinct spike waveforms and behavioral correlates. These distinct neuronal populations were shown to be differentially involved in timing and reward processing. More importantly, the LFP-spike synchrony data suggested that neurons in 1 particular cluster were putative fast-spiking interneurons (FSIs) in the striatum and these neurons responded to both timing and reward processing. Experiment 2 reported electrophysiological data that were similar with previous findings, but identified a different cluster of striatal neurons - putative tonically-active neurons (TANs), revealed by their distinct spike waveforms and special firing patterns during the acquisition of the task. These firing patterns of FSIs and TANs were in contrast with potential striatal medium-spiny neurons (MSNs) that preferentially responded to temporal processing in the current study. Experiment 3 further investigated the proposal that interval timing is subserved by cortico-striatal circuits by using microstimulation. The findings revealed a stimulation frequency-dependent "stop" or "reset" response pattern in rats receiving microstimulation in either the cortex or the striatum during the performance of the timing task. Taken together, the current findings further support that interval timing is represented in cortico-striatal networks that involve multiple types of interneurons (e.g., FSIs and TANs) functionally connected with the principal projection neurons (i.e., MSNs) in the dorsal striatum. When specific components of these complex networks are electrically stimulated, the ongoing timing processes are temporarily "stopped" or "reset" depending on the properties of the stimulation.</p> / Dissertation

Organic-inorganic nanostructured composites are nowadays integrated in the field of material science and technology. They are used as advanced materials directly or as precursors to novel composites with potential applications in optics, mechanics, energy, catalysis and medicine. Many properties of these complex materials depend on conformational rearrangements in their inherently dynamic organic parts. The focus of this thesis is on the study of the molecular mobility in ordered nanostructured composites and lyotropic mesophases and also on the development of relevant solid-state NMR methodologies. In this work, a number of new experimental approaches were proposed for dipolar NMR spectroscopy for characterizing molecular dynamics with atomic-level resolution in complex solids and liquids. A new acquisition scheme for two-dimensional dipolar spectroscopy has been developed in order to expand the spectral window in the indirect dimension while using limited radio-frequency power. Selective decoupling of spin-1 nuclei for sign-sensitive determination of the heteronuclear dipolar coupling has been described. A new dipolar recoupling technique for rotating samples has been developed to achieve high dipolar resolution in a wide range of dipolar coupling strength. The experimental techniques developed herein are capable of delivering detailed model-independent information on molecular motional parameters that can be directly compared in different composites and their bulk analogs. Solid-state NMR has been applied to study the local molecular dynamics of surfactant molecules in nanostructured organic-inorganic composites of different morphologies. On the basis of the experimental profiles of local order parameters, physical motional models for the confined surfactant molecules were put forward. In layered materials, a number of motional modes of surfactant molecules were observed depending on sample composition. These modes ranged from essentially immobilized rigid states to highly flexible and anisotropically tumbling states. In ordered hexagonal silica, highly dynamic conformationally disordered chains with restricted motion of the segments close to the head group have been found. The results presented in this thesis provide a step towards the comprehensive characterization of the molecular states and understanding the great variability of the molecular assemblies in advanced nanostructured organic−inorganic composite materials. / <p>QC 20150225</p>

Gamma oscillations of local field potentials (LFP) in the basal ganglia and thalamus had not been studied during saccades. Eleven patients were studied during deep brain stimulation (DBS); 6 were in the subthalamic nucleus (STN); 3 in the globus pallidus interna (GPi); and 2 in the thalamic ventralis intermedius nucleus (Vim). Patients performed horizontal saccades to visual targets while LFPs from DBS electrodes, scalp electroencephalogram (EEG), and electrooculogram (EOG) were recorded. Wavelet spectrograms were generated and saccade onset and event-related gamma synchronizations (ERS) were compared to baseline without eye motion. ERS were recorded at and after saccade onset in the STN, GPi and Vim, EEGs and EOGs; but were absent during target light illumination without saccades. ERS were symmetric in all DBS contacts and appeared identical in DBS LFPs, frontal EEGs and EOGs. These findings indicate their origin from extraocular muscle spike potentials rather than brain neural activity.

Gamma oscillations of local field potentials (LFP) in the basal ganglia and thalamus had not been studied during saccades. Eleven patients were studied during deep brain stimulation (DBS); 6 were in the subthalamic nucleus (STN); 3 in the globus pallidus interna (GPi); and 2 in the thalamic ventralis intermedius nucleus (Vim). Patients performed horizontal saccades to visual targets while LFPs from DBS electrodes, scalp electroencephalogram (EEG), and electrooculogram (EOG) were recorded. Wavelet spectrograms were generated and saccade onset and event-related gamma synchronizations (ERS) were compared to baseline without eye motion. ERS were recorded at and after saccade onset in the STN, GPi and Vim, EEGs and EOGs; but were absent during target light illumination without saccades. ERS were symmetric in all DBS contacts and appeared identical in DBS LFPs, frontal EEGs and EOGs. These findings indicate their origin from extraocular muscle spike potentials rather than brain neural activity.