Counterfactual research and Norrn Theory (Kahneman & Miller, 1986) predict that abnormal antecedents will be more mutable than normal antecedents. Individuals who behaved abnormally prior to accidental or criminal victimization (e.g., choosing a different route home) are usually awarded higher compensation than those victimized in more routine circumstances. Abnormality is said to provoke more available alternatives, and is cited as a positive correlate of affect (the emotional amplification hypothesis). Enhanced affective response is said to be responsible for greater compensation to victims and more severe punishment of offenders. This thesis challenged the notion that exceptional circumstances always have more available alternatives than do routine circumstances, incorporating higher methodological rigor and a more realistic legal context than previous studies. Results indicated that the degree of alternative availability is not so much a function of normality itself but of how normality is conveyed in scenarios. Routine circumstances can be just as mutable as exceptional circumstances. Scenario studies investigating criminal punishment which separated alternative availability and normality provided evidence of a moderating effect of availability, as well as an interaction between victim and offender availability. The findings help to revise assertions made by psychological and legal scholars concerning mutability.

現有不同種類的二進位邏輯(布林)轉換技術，用以改善二進位邏輯電路之各個範疇，包括面積、速度、耗電量及軟性錯誤率等等。有些邏輯轉換技術是基於代數運算，也有一些是基於邏輯理論。重新佈線是邏輯轉換技術的一種，特點是強而穩定且靈活。這種邏輯轉換技術的概念在於「以線換線」，即通過加入一些新電線(代替線），去移除電路內某些固有電線(目標線）。由於今天設計及製造電路之程序，已採用納米技術，電線之大小長短及布局均極影響電路的性能。因此，重新佈線技術很適用於現代的集成電路製作流程。本論文目的為研究傳統及新穎以誤差抵消為基礎的重新佈線技術之理論和應用，並試圖以其改善集成電路的耗電量與容錯能力。首先，我們研究採用重新佈線技術，去改善經過時鐘聞控技術處理的電路，減少其面積及耗電量。其次，我們結合以誤差抵消為基礎的重新佈線技術和傳統時鐘閘控技術，發展出新類型的時鐘閘控技術。最後，我們嘗試通過加添冗餘的電線來達到更佳的容錯能力。 / Various logic transformation techniques have been developed to optimize different aspects of Boolean circuit designs, such as area, speed, power and soft error rate. They range from algebraic operations to Boolean operations. Among the Boolean optimization techniques, rewiring is known to be as robust and flexible as others. Its idea is to replace a set of existing wires (target wires) in a circuit with another set of additional wires (alternative wires) which do not exist in the circuit originally. Hence, it is suitable for the design and manufacturing processes in today's nano-metre era in which wiring has become a dominating factor. In this thesis, a more general rewiring scheme based on the concepts of error cancellation as well as the traditional rewiring schemes were studied. Applications of rewiring and error cancellation concepts on power reduction and fault tolerance were experimented. Firstly, rewiring was adopted as a tool to minimize the area and power of clock gated circuits. Secondly, error-cancellation-based rewiring and traditional clock gating were integrated as a new kind of clock gating scheme. Lastly, a fault tolerance scheme based on redundant wire addition was developed. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Lam, Tak Kei. / Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 118-130). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Lam, Tak Kei.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Calcutta University. / Includes bibliographical references and index.

Thèse--Faculté des lettres de Paris.

Inaug.-diss.--Bonn. / Lebenslauf.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, 1900. / "Private edition, distributed by the University of Chicago libraries, Chicago, Illinois." "Reprinted from Studies in logical theory, by John Dewey."

No description available.

No description available.

<p>In multi-agent epistemic logics, common knowledge has been a central consideration of study. A generic common knowledge (<i>G.C.K.</i>) system is one that yields iterated knowledge <i>I</i>(&phiv;): 'any agent knows that any agent knows that any agent knows. . . &phiv;' for any number of iterations. Generic common knowledge yields iterated knowledge <i> G.C.K.</i>(&phiv;) &rarr; <i>I</i>(&phiv;) but is not necessarily logically equivalent to it. This contrasts with the most prevalent formulation of common knowledge <i>C</i> as equivalent to iterated knowledge. A spectrum of systems may satisfy the <i>G.C.K.</i> condition, of which <i>C</i> is just one. It has been shown that in the usual epistemic scenarios, <i>G.C.K.</i> can replace conventional common knowledge and Artemov has noted that such standard sources of common knowledge as public announcements of atomic sentences generally yield <i>G.C.K. </i> rather than <i>C.</i> </p><p> In this dissertation we study mathematical properties of generic common knowledge and compare them to the traditional common knowledge notion. In particular, we contrast the modal <i>G.C.K.</i> logics of McCarthy (e.g. <tt>M4</tt>) and Artemov (e.g. [special characters omitted]) with <i>C</i>-systems (e.g. [special characters omitted]) and present a joint <i>C/G.C.K.</i> implicit knowledge logic [special characters omitted] as a conservative extension of both. We show that in standard epistemic scenarios in which common knowledge of certain premises is assumed, whose conclusion does not concern common knowledge (such as Muddy Children, Wise Men, Unfaithful Wives, etc.), a lighter <i>G.C.K.</i>can be used instead of the traditional, more complicated, common knowledge. We then present the first fully explicit <i>G.C.K.</i> system <tt>LP</tt><i>_n</i>(<tt>LP</tt>). This justification logic realizes the corresponding modal system [special characters omitted] so that <i>G.C.K.</i>, along with individual knowledge modalities, can always be made explicit.</p>

PART I (Partial-valued Languages): In Chapter I we consider modes of sentence composition and ask what 'truth-functionality' is functionality in two values, when there is also a third classification for meaningful sentences, An answer to this question might, we suggest, be seen as spelling out the very idea of the third classification as lack-of-a-value rather than a third value. We go on to ask how fully to exploit partial-valued semantics and motivate the need for modes of composition which themselves actually introduce non-trivial truth-value preconditions. There are two particularly interesting connectives which provide this expressive resourcefulness. The relation between partial- and total-valued languages is then considered. In Chapter II we consider subsentential modes of composition, and extensionality in general. Hence we come to see the shape of a partial-valued semantics which admits of undefinedness in a uniform way in all categories. But we restrict special attention to a simple kind of first-order language with terms and quantifiers and a discrete and determinate identity relation. There is, finally, a section devoted to definite descriptions. PART II (Logic): In Chapter III we set up laws for sentential composition, and in Chapter IV for the simple languages mentioned above. A theory is defined to be a (consequence) relation satisfying these laws, and we investigate the connection between theories and their models. Thus we are able to answer (some) questions about the logic: familiar questions and also ones peculiar to our partial-valued framework. PART III: In Chapter V we suggest that the features of our logic make it apt for deployment in a natural-language semantics which not only accommodates but actually gives a proper systematic treatment to 'presupposition'. The emphasis is on exhibiting presuppositions (as truth-value preconditions). We attempt, furthermore, to outline an account of linguistic practice which meshes with the semantic details in an illuminating way. 'Presupposing' is taken to be constitutive of assertion making, and what is presupposed constitutive of what is asserted.