No description available.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans l’étude du comportement à long terme des verres nucléaires en conditions de stockage. Son objectif est de déterminer, de comprendre et de comparer les effets de certains éléments chimiques présents dans la composition du verre et/ou dans le milieu de stockage (Zn, Mg, Ni, Co, Fe, Ca, Gd, Ce, K, Cs, Cr et Ag) sur les différents processus mis en jeux lors de l’altération aqueuse des verres nucléaires. Dans ce cadre, une attention particulière a été portée sur le caractère cumulatif ou compétitif des effets de ces éléments chimiques. Pour cela, un verre simple à 6 oxydes (ISG) a été altéré pendant plus de 500 jours dans une solution contenant un ou plusieurs des éléments chimiques d’intérêt. Les éléments Zn, Mg, Ni, Co et Fe augmentent l’altération du verre en formant des phases secondaires de même structure (smectites tricotaédriques) et de même stœchiométrie (à l’élément près). Leur précipitation consomme des éléments chimiques du milieu (Si, Al) et induit une diminution de pH. Ce processus se maintient jusqu’à l’atteinte d’un pH limite propre à chaque phase secondaire, au-dessous duquel leur précipitation est inhibée. Par la suite, ces éléments peuvent s’intégrer dans le gel d’altération en remplacement du Ca rendu plus soluble par la baisse du pH. Tant qu’ils forment des phases secondaires, les effets de ces éléments sont cumulatifs. Les terres rares Gd et Ce augmentent aussi l’altération du verre en formant des phases secondaires mais leurs effets sont plus faibles car elles sont moins silicatées. Ces éléments, ne s’intègrent pas dans le gel. Le Cr précipite avec le Ca pour former une phase qui appauvrit le gel en Ca, entraine une diminution du pH et augmente l’altération du verre.Les éléments K, Cs et Ca limitent l’altération du verre en s’intégrant dans le gel et en ralentissant les phénomènes de transport en son sein. Cette intégration est compétitive : l’ordre d’intégration (quantité et efficacité sur la limitation de l’altération) est le suivant Ca >> Cs > K. L’élément Ag précipitant sous forme d’AgCl, n’a pas d’effet sur l’altération du verre : cette phase ne modifie ni le milieu, ni le développement de la pellicule d’altération.Ainsi, l’augmentation de l’altération pourrait être proportionnelle à la quantité d’éléments favorisant la précipitation de phases secondaires, mais la diminution de pH qui l’accompagne limite ce processus. Les effets des éléments qui diminuent l’altération du verre en s’incorporant dans le gel, sont limités en quantité par la composition du gel et sa capacité à les recevoir, et en qualité par la nature même des éléments. / This work takes place in the context of the long-term behavior of nuclear glasses under repository conditions. The main objective is to identify, understand and compare the effects of some chemical elements present in the glass composition and/or in the repository media (Zn, Mg, Ni, Co, Fe, Ca, Gd, Ce, K, Cs, Cr and Ag) on the processes involved in glass alteration by water. The cumulative or competitive nature of the effects of these chemical elements was determined. To reach this goal, a 6 oxides simple glass (ISG) has been altered for more than 500 days in a solution containing one or more of the chemical elements of interest.The results indicated that Zn, Mg, Ni, Co and Fe elements increase glass alteration forming secondary phases with the same structure and stoichiometry (trioctahedral smectites). To form, these silicates consume chemical elements (Si, Al) from the environment and induce a pH decrease until a limiting value of pH. Beyond this pH the precipitation of secondary phases is inhibited and these chemical elements can be integrated into the gel, replacing Ca whose solubility increases at lower pH. As long as they form secondary phases, the effects of these elements are cumulative. Rare earths Gd and Ce also increase glass alteration forming secondary phases but their effects are lower as they contain less silicon. These elements are not integrated in the gel. Chromium increases glass alteration by precipitating with Ca and leading to a less protective gel, depleted in Ca. Silver precipitates as AgCl and has no effect on the alteration of the glass.The chemical elements K, Cs and Ca limit glass alteration by integrating into the gel and slowing down the transport phenomena therein. This integration is competitive: the order of integration (quantity and effectiveness glass alteration limitation) is the following Ca >> Cs > K. Thus, the increase of glass alteration may be proportional to the quantity of elements promoting the precipitation of secondary phases, but the pH decrease limits the process. The effects of the elements that reduce glass alteration by incorporating into the gel, are quantitatively limited by the gel composition and its ability to incorporate them, and qualitatively by the nature of the elements.

Elektrische Verbindungen in der Elektroenergietechnik sind aus technologischen und konstruktiven Gründen beim Zusammenschalten von Betriebsmitteln in Schaltanlagen und auf den Übertragungswegen bei Kabeln und Freileitungen notwendig. Als elektrischer Kontakt wird die Berührung zweier stromführender Leiter verstanden. Eine Verbindungsart, die häufig bei Stromschienen eingesetzt wird, ist die Schraubenverbindung. Um eine Lebensdauer dieser Verbindung von üblicherweise 50 Jahren und mehr zu gewährleisten, ist es notwendig, die Alterung abhängig von der Zeit und der Temperatur zu kennen. Neben dem Kraftabbau und den chemischen Reaktionen / Fremdschichtbildung bei Verbindungen mit Kupfer- oder Aluminiumleitern ist die Interdiffusion bei Bimetallverbindungen und bei Verbindungen mit beschichteten Kontaktpartnern von Bedeutung. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Kraftabbau bei Schraubenverbindungen mit Stromschienen aus Cu-ETP (Werkstoff-Nr. CW004A) und CuAg0,1P (Werkstoff-Nr. CW016A) im Temperaturbereich zwischen 105 °C und 160 °C untersucht. Es wurde die Kraft und der Widerstand an stromdurchflossenen Verbindungen abhängig von der Zeit bis zu 2,4 Jahren gemessen. Des Weiteren wurde der Einfluss von verschiedenen federnden und nicht federnden Elementen im Verbindungssystem auf den Kraftabbau untersucht. Es wurde eine statische Mindestverbindungskraft bestimmt, der Kraftabbau bis zu einer Lebensdauer von 50 Jahren berechnet und daraus eine Grenztemperatur für diese Verbindungsart bestimmt. Neben dem Kraftabbau wurde die Alterung durch Interdiffusion an Schraubenverbindungen mit verzinnten und versilberten Cu-ETP Stromschienen im Temperaturbereich zwischen 115 °C und 140 °C untersucht. Es wurde an stromdurchflossenen und im Wärmeschrank gelagerten Verbindungen der Verbindungswiderstand abhängig von der Zeit bis zu 2 Jahren gemessen. Die Langzeitversuche wurden durch mikroskopische Untersuchungen ergänzt, in denen die Dicke der sich gebildeten intermetallischen Phasen gemessen und bewertet wurde. Ergänzend zu den Langzeituntersuchungen wurden aktuelle Erkenntnisse zu den chemischen Reaktionen / Fremdschichtbildung auf Kupfer-, Silber- und Zinnoberflächen zusammengestellt und bewertet. / Electrical joints are necessary for technological and design reasons to connect electric equipment and to realize the transmission of electrical energy by cables and overhead lines. The contact between two current-flown electrical conductors is called electrical joint. One joint type often used is the bolted joint. To allow a lifetime of this joint of 50 years and longer it is necessary to know the ageing depend on time and temperature. In addition to ageing by force reduction and the chemical reactions / impurity layers at joints with copper und aluminium conductors, the interdiffusion has a great influence at bi-metal joints and joints with plated conductors. In this work the force reduction was analysed at bolted joints with bus bars made of Cu-ETP (material number CW004A) and CuAg0.1P (material number CW016A) in a temperature range between 105 °C and 160 °C. The joint force and the joint resistance were measured time-depended at current-flown joints up to 2.4 years. Furthermore the influence on the force reduction by different resilient und non-resilient elements in the joint system was tested. There was a minimum static joint force appointed and the force reduction calculated to a lifetime of 50 years. Out of these results a category temperature for these joints was defined. Additionally the ageing due to interdiffusion at bolted joints with tin and silver plated Cu-ETP bus bars was analysed at the temperatures 115 °C and 140 °C. At joints aged by current-flown and in the heating cabinet the joint resistance was measured time-dependent up to 2 years. These long-term tests were supplemented by microscopic examinations. The thickness of the grown intermetallic compounds was measured and stated. Additional to the long-term tests the topical knowledge to chemical reactions / impurity layers at copper, silver and tin surfaces was composed and stated.

Cette thèse porte sur les mécanismes et cinétiques d'altération des verres basaltiques. Par une meilleure compréhension des processus contrôlant la durabilité de ces verres, elle tente d'établir un lien entre les études de laboratoire et l'altération des verres volcaniques en milieu naturel. La méthodologie suivie reprend celle utilisée pour les verres nucléaires. Ainsi, nous mesurons pour la première fois la vitesse résiduelle d'altération des verres basaltiques. L'effet protecteur de la pellicule d'altération est clairement mis en évidence. Par ailleurs, la représentativité des verres synthétiques est évaluée par le biais d'une étude sur l'effet du degré d'oxydation du fer sur la structure et l'altération du verre. Un effet mineur de la teneur en FeII sur la vitesse initiale et un effet négligeable sur la vitesse résiduelle sont établis. La vitesse résiduelle a été extrapolée à 5°C et comparée à la vitesse d'altération moyenne de verres basaltiques d'âges compris entre 1900 et 107 ans. Les verres naturels non-zéolitisés s'inscrivent dans cette tendance linéaire, suggérant un contrôle de la vitesse à long terme par la précipitation de phases secondaires argileuses. Le milieu naturel étant ouvert, une étude paramétrique a été menée pour quantifier l'effet du débit d'eau sur la composition chimique de la couche d'altération. L'application des lois ainsi obtenues à deux échantillons naturels conduit à des résultats cohérents. Ainsi, il semble possible d'unifier l'approche descriptive issue des milieux naturels à celle, mécanistique, développée au laboratoire. L'étape suivante consistera à développer une modélisation pour transposer ces résultats aux verres nucléaires. / This dissertation concerns basaltic glass alteration mechanisms and rates. Through a better understanding of the processes controlling the basaltic glass durability, this thesis attempts to establish a link between laboratory studies and volcanic glass alteration in natural environment. The methodology used here is similar to the one used for nuclear glasses. Thus, we measured for the first time the residual alteration rate of basaltic glasses. Protective effect of the alteration film is clearly established. Moreover, synthetic glass representativity is evaluated through a study focused on the effect of iron oxidation degree on the glass structure and leaching properties. A minor effect of FeII on the forward rate and a negligible effect on the residual rate are shown. The residual rate is extrapolated at 5°C and compared to the mean alteration rate of natural samples of ages ranging from 1900 to 107 years. Non-zeolitized natural glasses follow this linear tendency, suggesting a control of the long-term rate by clayey secondary phase precipitation. Natural environments are open environments: a parametric study was performed in order to quantify the water flow rate effect on chemical composition of the alteration layer. When applied to two natural samples, the obtained laws provide coherent results. It seems possible to unify the descriptive approach from the study of natural environments to the mechanistic approach developed at the laboratory. The next step will consist in developing a model to transpose these results to nuclear glasses.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é apresentar um modelo de análise probabilística do comportamento ao longo do tempo de estruturas de concreto. Para isso, é realizada a análise probabilística em conjunto com análise numérica. A análise numérica é realizada através de um programa computacional, baseado no método dos elementos finitos, que considera o comportamento não-linear e dependente do tempo dos materiais, assim como o processo evolutivo da construção. Para determinar o efeito das incertezas dos parâmetros é realizada uma análise probabilística, utilizando o método de amostragem por hipercubo latino. O modelo apresentado pode ser aplicado para a análise probabilística do comportamento ao longo do tempo das estruturas de concreto em geral. No entanto, foi aplicado na análise das flechas diferidas de lajes pré-moldadas formadas por vigotas com armação treliçada. Com esta análise, pôde-se propor um coeficiente multiplicador das flechas imediatas para a avaliação das flechas diferidas no tempo. O coeficiente multiplicador obtido para as lajes pré-moldadas formadas por vigotas com armação treliçada pode alcançar valores muito superiores ao fator 'alfa'f recomendado pela NBR 6118 (2003) para o caso de vigas de concreto armado. / The goal of this research is to present a probabilistic analysis model of the long-term behavior of concrete structures. For that, the probabilistic analysis is carried out together with numerical analysis. The numerical analysis is carried out using a software based on the finite element method that takes into account the nonlinear and time dependent behavior of the materials, as well as the evolutionary construction process. A probabilistic analysis is carried out in order to determine the effects of the uncertainties of the parameters, using latin hypercube sampling method. The presented model can be applied in the probabilistic analysis of the long-term behavior of concrete structures in general. However, it was applied in the analysis of the long-term deflections of precast slabs made by joist with lattice reinforcement. By this analysis, a multiplier coefficient of immediate deflections to evaluate long-term deflections could be proposed. The multiplier coefficient obtained for precast slabs made by joist with lattice reinforcement can reach values much higher than the factor 'alfa'f recommended by NBR 6118 (2003) for the case of reinforced concrete beams.

The study of the influence of viscoelastic adhesives on timber-glass composite beams addresses the development of new and innovative load bearing structures. Hybrid timber-glass beams, comprising of timber flanges and a glass web, were considered. The solutions proposed in this study are based on utilizing viscoelastic adhesive bond lines to obtain optimal structural interaction between timber and glass. For hybrid timber-glass beams, numerical simulations have been developed with Abaqus, Finite element software which are verified by analytical methods according to the Eurocode 5 (EN 1995). In this study, three different bond-line geometries and three adhesives (epoxy, silicone and acrylate) have been investigated. The beams were analyzed under four-point bending. This report summarizes theoretical investigations, background studies, numerical modelling and analytical solution that have been performed. Guidance is presented which can be used for the design of timber-glass composite beams. The study has shown that the viscoelastic properties of the adhesive had no significant influence for the selected epoxy adhesive, but it can slightly affect the beam behavior with the silicone and acrylate adhesives used. From the three geometries studied, the design with an epoxy bond-line on both sides and on top of glass is regarded the best way, leading to good load-bearing structural elements where the response of the adhesive was highly influenced by its near incompressible behavior.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é apresentar um modelo de análise probabilística do comportamento ao longo do tempo de estruturas de concreto. Para isso, é realizada a análise probabilística em conjunto com análise numérica. A análise numérica é realizada através de um programa computacional, baseado no método dos elementos finitos, que considera o comportamento não-linear e dependente do tempo dos materiais, assim como o processo evolutivo da construção. Para determinar o efeito das incertezas dos parâmetros é realizada uma análise probabilística, utilizando o método de amostragem por hipercubo latino. O modelo apresentado pode ser aplicado para a análise probabilística do comportamento ao longo do tempo das estruturas de concreto em geral. No entanto, foi aplicado na análise das flechas diferidas de lajes pré-moldadas formadas por vigotas com armação treliçada. Com esta análise, pôde-se propor um coeficiente multiplicador das flechas imediatas para a avaliação das flechas diferidas no tempo. O coeficiente multiplicador obtido para as lajes pré-moldadas formadas por vigotas com armação treliçada pode alcançar valores muito superiores ao fator 'alfa'f recomendado pela NBR 6118 (2003) para o caso de vigas de concreto armado. / The goal of this research is to present a probabilistic analysis model of the long-term behavior of concrete structures. For that, the probabilistic analysis is carried out together with numerical analysis. The numerical analysis is carried out using a software based on the finite element method that takes into account the nonlinear and time dependent behavior of the materials, as well as the evolutionary construction process. A probabilistic analysis is carried out in order to determine the effects of the uncertainties of the parameters, using latin hypercube sampling method. The presented model can be applied in the probabilistic analysis of the long-term behavior of concrete structures in general. However, it was applied in the analysis of the long-term deflections of precast slabs made by joist with lattice reinforcement. By this analysis, a multiplier coefficient of immediate deflections to evaluate long-term deflections could be proposed. The multiplier coefficient obtained for precast slabs made by joist with lattice reinforcement can reach values much higher than the factor 'alfa'f recommended by NBR 6118 (2003) for the case of reinforced concrete beams.

Stationary electrical connections and contacts, such as power connections, are commonly applied in electric power systems used for generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy. Several different degradation mechanisms can increase the contact resistance and might therefore reduce the power connection’s lifetime. The degradation by film development as a result of chemical reactions is often considered as a reason for contact failure. In this research work, the impact of film development produced by chemical reactions, such as oxidation, on the long-term behavior of stationary electrical connections and contacts was studied with crossed rods. Analytical, numerical and experimental methods were applied. Typical material systems for electric power systems were considered in this study: Cu-ETP (CW004A) bare, silver-, nickel- or tin-coated, Al99.5 (EN AW-1050A) and AlMgSi0.5 (EN AW-6060). By applying numerical methods, the mechanical stress distribution was determined within a circular contact point. The initial contact resistance and the plastic deformed area of the considered material systems was measured in experimental tests. The film’s impact was further determined through comparative experimental studies in air (standard atmosphere) and N2 (inert gas). During the experimental tests on perpendicularly crossed rods, other degradation mechanisms such as force reduction were suppressed. The film’s impact within the formation phase was studied on copper rods in an oven at 200 °C for 1000 h. Moreover, the dependency on different environments at 90 °C (laboratory, botanical garden and outdoor) was tested for 12000 h. Additional long-term tests over 12000 h were conducted at 200 °C. The contact resistance was determined dependent on time. Furthermore, the plastic deformed area was ascertained by microscopy. It was found that the time dependent film development caused by chemical reactions such as oxidation might possibly not result in a significant degradation of stationary electrical contacts with circular contact points and a constant force. Supplementary studies were performed at 200 °C for 1000 h with perpendicularly crossed rods at low forces (3.5 N) as well as analytical assessment of radial and axial film growth on circular contact points. The measured long-term behavior of perpendicularly crossed rods was similar for low and high forces. In order to study the long-term behavior of power connections operated in areas with harsh environmental conditions, experimental field tests on bolted busbar joints were conducted in desert and tropical rainforest environments. For over two and a half years, long-term field tests investigating bolted busbar joints made of Cu-ETP, Al99.5 (EN-AW-1350A) or AlMgSi0.5 (EN AW-6060) either with or without coating (silver, tin or nickel) were conducted in Belém (Brazil), Ismailia (Egypt) and Dresden (Germany).

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第22157号 / 工博第4661号 / 新制||工||1727(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市社会工学専攻 / (主査)教授 三村 衛, 教授 大津 宏康, 准教授 肥後 陽介 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

Für einen sicheren und zuverlässigen Betrieb des gesamten Elektroenergieversorgungs-systems ist der langzeitstabile und möglichst wartungsfreie oder wartungsarme Betrieb jeder einzelnen Komponente wichtig. Eine Wartung aller stromführenden Verbindungen ist aufgrund der Anzahl und ihrer Zugänglichkeit nicht möglich. Eine Großzahl der Verbindungen wird deshalb montiert und muss über die geforderte Lebensdauer der Anlagen von mehreren Jahrzehnten wartungsfrei funktionieren. Um dies gewährleisten zu können, müssen die richtigen Leiter- und Beschichtungswerkstoffe gewählt, eine langzeitstabile Konstruktion vorhanden, die richtige Montage durchgeführt und eine gesicherte Grenztemperatur für die gewünschte Lebensdauer unter Berücksichtigung der Umgebungsbedingungen bekannt sein. In dieser Arbeit werden stromführende Verbindungen betrachtet, die keinen Lichtbogen führen müssen. Es werden die wichtigsten Leiter- und Beschichtungswerkstoffe, die Kontaktphysik insbesondere von Flächenkontakten, der Zusammenhang zwischen mechanischem und elektrischem Kontaktverhalten, die Physik der Alterung und die Wirkung auf das Langzeitverhalten bei unterschiedlichen Einsatz- und Umgebungsbedingungen betrachtet. Basierend auf diesen Erkenntnissen werden genormte Prüfverfahren bewertet und Ansätze zum Weiterentwickeln vorgestellt. Die Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit basieren auf Ergebnissen, die in 40 Jahren Forschung an der TU Dresden erarbeitet wurden. Als Modellgeometrie für die grundlegenden experimentellen Untersuchungen wurden insbesondere Schrauben¬verbindungen mit Stromschienen verwendet, da diese Verbindungsart eine der am häufigsten verwendeten ist und millionenfach im Elektroenergieversorgungssystem eingesetzt wird.:1 Einleitung 2 Funktion und Anforderung an stromführende Verbindungen 3 Kontaktwerkstoffe 3.1 Leiter 3.2 Beschichten von Leitern 4 Kontaktverhalten von Schraubenverbindungen 4.1 Physikalische Grundlagen zum Flächenkontakt 4.2 Schraubenverbindung mit Stromschienen 4.2.1 Mechanisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.2 Elektrisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.3 Zusammenhang elektrisches und mechanisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.4 Montage stromführender Verbindungen 4.2.5 Verallgemeinern der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse 5 Langzeitverhalten von Schraubenverbindungen 5.1 Alterungsmechanismen 5.1.1 Kraftabbau 5.1.2 Diffusion 5.1.3 Chemische Reaktionen 5.1.4 Reibverschleiß 5.1.5 Elektromigration 5.2 Mathematische Ansätze zum Beschreiben der Alterung 5.3 Experimentell ermittelte Lebensdauerkennlinien 5.3.1 Typische Lebensdauerkennlinie von Schraubenverbindungen 5.3.2 Leiterwerkstoffe - Aluminium, Kupfer und deren Legierungen 5.3.3 Beschichtungswerkstoffe - Silber, Nickel, Zinn 6 Prüfverfahren 7 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 8 Literaturverzeichnis 9 Abbildungsverzeichnis 10 Tabellenverzeichnis / For a safe and reliable operation of the electric power supply system, the long-term stable and low-maintenance or maintenance-free operation of each component is important. Maintenance of all current-carrying joints is not possible due to their number and accessibility. A large number of joints is installed and must operate during the required life-time of the system of several decades maintenance-free. In order to warrant this, the appropriate conductor and coating material must be selected, a long-term stable construction design must be provided, the correct installation must be guaranteed, and a safe temperature limit for the desired life-time must be known according to the ambient conditions. In this work, non-arcing current-carrying joints are investigated. It considers the most important conductor and coating materials, the physics of surface contacts, the relationship between mechanical and electrical contact behavior, the physics of aging and the effects on the long-term behavior under different conditions of use and environmental conditions. Based on these scientific findings, standardized test methods are evaluated and approaches for further development are presented. The findings of this work are based on the results obtained in 40 years of research at the TU Dresden. As a model geometry for the basic experimental investigations bolted joints with bus bars are used, because this type of joint is one of the most commonly used millions of times in the electric power supply system.:1 Einleitung 2 Funktion und Anforderung an stromführende Verbindungen 3 Kontaktwerkstoffe 3.1 Leiter 3.2 Beschichten von Leitern 4 Kontaktverhalten von Schraubenverbindungen 4.1 Physikalische Grundlagen zum Flächenkontakt 4.2 Schraubenverbindung mit Stromschienen 4.2.1 Mechanisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.2 Elektrisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.3 Zusammenhang elektrisches und mechanisches Kontaktverhalten 4.2.4 Montage stromführender Verbindungen 4.2.5 Verallgemeinern der gewonnenen Erkenntnisse 5 Langzeitverhalten von Schraubenverbindungen 5.1 Alterungsmechanismen 5.1.1 Kraftabbau 5.1.2 Diffusion 5.1.3 Chemische Reaktionen 5.1.4 Reibverschleiß 5.1.5 Elektromigration 5.2 Mathematische Ansätze zum Beschreiben der Alterung 5.3 Experimentell ermittelte Lebensdauerkennlinien 5.3.1 Typische Lebensdauerkennlinie von Schraubenverbindungen 5.3.2 Leiterwerkstoffe - Aluminium, Kupfer und deren Legierungen 5.3.3 Beschichtungswerkstoffe - Silber, Nickel, Zinn 6 Prüfverfahren 7 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 8 Literaturverzeichnis 9 Abbildungsverzeichnis 10 Tabellenverzeichnis