The main objective of this research was to investigate possible uses of Western-Canadian grown chickpea (<i>Cicer arietinum</i> L.) in the form of flour, starch and protein isolates in low-fat pork bologna. <p>In the first study, flour, starch and protein isolates from six chickpea cultivars (three Kabuli and three Desi) from two harvests (2005 and 2006) were evaluated for their physico-chemical, functional and thermal properties. Chickpea flour was made by grinding seed to pass through a 0.1mm screen, whereas protein isolates and starch were prepared by a wet milling process. Protein isolates were prepared from chickpea flour (23.2% protein on average) by alkaline extraction (pH 8.0) and isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.3). Protein isolates contained 72.8-85.3% protein; the starch fraction contained 93.0-98.0% starch. On SDS-PAGE, the chickpea flours and protein isolates contained similar polypeptide bands in the range of 30 to 55 kDa, with three major bands at approximately 50-55, 40 and 30 kDa. Least gelation concentration (LGC) for chickpea flours ranged from 6-14%; LGC for chickpea protein isolates ranged from 10-14%. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of chickpea flour slurries revealed two endothermic peaks. One corresponded to starch gelatinization at approximately 64°C, which was slightly higher than for the starch fraction (~60°C). The second broad peak at approximately 96°C corresponded to the denaturation of the globulin protein fraction, which was also slightly higher than for the protein isolates (~91°C). Chickpea flour exhibited nitrogen solubility index values higher than those of chickpea protein isolates and soy and pea protein isolates. Chickpea protein isolates exhibited water holding capacities, oil absorption capacities, emulsion activity indeces and emulsion stability indeces higher than those of the chickpea flours. CDC Xena (Kabuli) and Myles (Desi), in general, most exhibited properties appropriate for meat applications. In the second study, the efficacy of flour, starch and protein from CDC Xena (Kabuli hereafter) and Myles (Desi hereafter) were investigated in low-fat pork bologna (LFPB). Low-fat pork bologna (<5% fat) was prepared by incorporating 2.5 or 5.0% flour, 1.5 or 3.0% protein isolate (protein basis), or 1.0 or 2.0% starch in the formulation. Controls were prepared without any binder, and formulations containing wheat or pea flour, soy or pea protein isolate, potato or pea starch, or extra meat were prepared for comparison. Inclusion of chickpea flour, protein or starch had a positive effect (P<0.05) on the cook yield, expressible moisture and purge of LFPB, and had little effect on colour. Increasing chickpea flour substitution from 2.5 to 5.0% altered the sensory and instrumental textural quality of LFPB significantly (P<0.05). Desi flour at 5.0% showed the highest TPA (texture profile analysis) hardness and chewiness, Allo-Kramer shear values and torsion shear stress. Similarly, LFPB containing chickpea protein isolate (CPI), soy protein isolate (SPI) or pea protein isolate (PPI) (3.0% protein basis) was firmer than either LFPB containing 1.5% protein from CPI, SPI or PPI or the control-I (with the same level of meat protein). Likewise, LFPB formulated with 2.0% Kabuli or Desi starch had higher TPA values than those prepared with pea or potato starch. For most flavour sensory properties, Kabuli and Desi chickpea flour and starch, irrespective of level of incorporation, performed similarly to the control. However, panellists noted more off-flavours with the addition of wheat flour or pea flour at 5.0%. Chickpea protein isolate, SPI or PPI at the 1.5% protein addition level did not alter the flavour properties of LFPB.<p>It was concluded that chickpea flour, starch and protein had potential for utilization as extenders in low-fat meat emulsion systems such as frankfurters and bologna.

The main objective of this research was to investigate possible uses of Western-Canadian grown chickpea (<i>Cicer arietinum</i> L.) in the form of flour, starch and protein isolates in low-fat pork bologna. <p>In the first study, flour, starch and protein isolates from six chickpea cultivars (three Kabuli and three Desi) from two harvests (2005 and 2006) were evaluated for their physico-chemical, functional and thermal properties. Chickpea flour was made by grinding seed to pass through a 0.1mm screen, whereas protein isolates and starch were prepared by a wet milling process. Protein isolates were prepared from chickpea flour (23.2% protein on average) by alkaline extraction (pH 8.0) and isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.3). Protein isolates contained 72.8-85.3% protein; the starch fraction contained 93.0-98.0% starch. On SDS-PAGE, the chickpea flours and protein isolates contained similar polypeptide bands in the range of 30 to 55 kDa, with three major bands at approximately 50-55, 40 and 30 kDa. Least gelation concentration (LGC) for chickpea flours ranged from 6-14%; LGC for chickpea protein isolates ranged from 10-14%. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of chickpea flour slurries revealed two endothermic peaks. One corresponded to starch gelatinization at approximately 64°C, which was slightly higher than for the starch fraction (~60°C). The second broad peak at approximately 96°C corresponded to the denaturation of the globulin protein fraction, which was also slightly higher than for the protein isolates (~91°C). Chickpea flour exhibited nitrogen solubility index values higher than those of chickpea protein isolates and soy and pea protein isolates. Chickpea protein isolates exhibited water holding capacities, oil absorption capacities, emulsion activity indeces and emulsion stability indeces higher than those of the chickpea flours. CDC Xena (Kabuli) and Myles (Desi), in general, most exhibited properties appropriate for meat applications. In the second study, the efficacy of flour, starch and protein from CDC Xena (Kabuli hereafter) and Myles (Desi hereafter) were investigated in low-fat pork bologna (LFPB). Low-fat pork bologna (<5% fat) was prepared by incorporating 2.5 or 5.0% flour, 1.5 or 3.0% protein isolate (protein basis), or 1.0 or 2.0% starch in the formulation. Controls were prepared without any binder, and formulations containing wheat or pea flour, soy or pea protein isolate, potato or pea starch, or extra meat were prepared for comparison. Inclusion of chickpea flour, protein or starch had a positive effect (P<0.05) on the cook yield, expressible moisture and purge of LFPB, and had little effect on colour. Increasing chickpea flour substitution from 2.5 to 5.0% altered the sensory and instrumental textural quality of LFPB significantly (P<0.05). Desi flour at 5.0% showed the highest TPA (texture profile analysis) hardness and chewiness, Allo-Kramer shear values and torsion shear stress. Similarly, LFPB containing chickpea protein isolate (CPI), soy protein isolate (SPI) or pea protein isolate (PPI) (3.0% protein basis) was firmer than either LFPB containing 1.5% protein from CPI, SPI or PPI or the control-I (with the same level of meat protein). Likewise, LFPB formulated with 2.0% Kabuli or Desi starch had higher TPA values than those prepared with pea or potato starch. For most flavour sensory properties, Kabuli and Desi chickpea flour and starch, irrespective of level of incorporation, performed similarly to the control. However, panellists noted more off-flavours with the addition of wheat flour or pea flour at 5.0%. Chickpea protein isolate, SPI or PPI at the 1.5% protein addition level did not alter the flavour properties of LFPB.<p>It was concluded that chickpea flour, starch and protein had potential for utilization as extenders in low-fat meat emulsion systems such as frankfurters and bologna.

The overall goal of this research was to investigate the effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the physicochemical properties of chickpea flour and its subsequent performance as a binder in a model low-fat pork bologna product. This work was divided into three studies. In the first study, the effect of seed tempering moisture (untempered (7% moisture) or tempered to 15 or 22% moisture) and surface micronization temperature (115, 130, 150 or 165oC) and on the physical, chemical and functional properties of chickpea flour were investigated. Chickpea flour became darker as seed moisture or micronization temperature increased. Increasing the micronization temperature at 22% seed moisture increased starch gelatinization from 8.2 to 34.0%. The lipoxygenase activity of chickpea flour also was reduced by micronization of seed. Lipoxygenase activity in flour from non-micronized seed and flour from seed micronized at 115oC without tempering was determined to be 1.98×105 and 1.12×105 units/g of protein, respectively, with no activity found in any other treatments. There was an increase in the water holding (WHC) and oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flour when chickpea seed was tempered to 22% moisture before micronization. Flour from untempered seed and from seed tempered to 15% moisture exhibited small increases in WHC as micronization temperature increased. Micronization had no effect on the OAC of untempered flours, whereas OAC decreased in flour from seed tempered to 15% moisture at higher micronization temperatures. Rapid visco-analysis (RVA) revealed that peak viscosity and final viscosity of all flours from tempered seed decreased with increasing micronization temperature, whereas the trend for both peak viscosity and final viscosity was in the opposite direction with untempered seed. The effect of seed tempering moisture and micronization temperature on the performance of chickpea flour as a binder in a low-fat, comminuted meat product (i.e., low-fat bologna) was investigated in study 2. Both the textural and sensory properties (trained sensory panel, n=12) of the bologna (10% fat) were explored. In study 3, a consumer panel was performed with 101 untrained participants evaluating selected formulations in order to better understand consumer purchasing behaviour as it relates to comminuted meat products containing a pulse-based binder. Bologna containing flour from micronized chickpea was more yellow in colour (CIE system, trained panel and consumer panel evaluation) compared to those with added wheat flour or no binder. There was no effect of tempering or micronization conditions on cook loss or expressible moisture of bologna containing chickpea flour, whereas bologna produced with wheat flour had the greatest WHC among all bologna treatments. Texture profile analysis (TPA) showed that the addition of chickpea flour from seed tempered to 15% or 22% seed moisture and micronized to 115, 130 or 150oC or flour from untempered seed micronized to 130 or 150oC led to an increase in hardness to a level similar to that of bologna containing wheat flour; sensory evaluation by the trained panel did not produce a similar result. A difference in flavour intensity was not found among all bolognas containing chickpea flour during sensory evaluation. Bologna produced with chickpea flour from seed micronized to 150oC and from seed tempered to 22% moisture and micronized to 115oC was comparable to bologna containing wheat flour with respect to overall texture, overall juiciness and flavour acceptability. These results demonstrated that selection of appropriate seed tempering conditions and micronization temperatures is important with respect to the utilization of chickpea flour as a binder in low-fat bologna.