This project studied the effects of wind tunnel test loads applied to purlins in low rise steel buildings compared to those determined with currently recognized wind loading provisions. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) database of low-rise building wind tunnel test data, which was collected at the University of Western Ontario (UWO) boundary layer wind tunnel, was used to model a realistic wind load scenario. Pressure coefficient data recorded in the database was applied statically to individual purlins in a typical design for the size of buildings studied. These results were then compared to those obtained using the wind design provisions in ASCE 7-16 Chapter 30 for Components and Cladding. The primary data of interest was shear and moment values along the length of the purlins, which were modeled as continuous beams. Comparisons were made between the resultant shear and moment from both the wind tunnel load and ASCE 7-16 load values at 1-foot increments along the length of the purlin. The results showed that the overall peak values obtained from wind tunnel test loads were 3% to 49% higher than those calculated using ASCE 7-16 for purlins that were on the windward edge of the building. Purlins on the interior of the building varied in whether they exceeded the loads calculated with ASCE 7. Changing the height of the structure and the terrain roughness both increased the number of purlins that were lower than the values provided in ASCE 7-16 in the interior of the structure. / Master of Science / Purlins are roof members used in low rise steel buildings to transmit wind loads applied to the roof of the structure to the frame of the building. This project studied the effects of applying loads to purlins using methods specified by the code compared to those found in a wind tunnel, to look at the similarity of the values and model the actual behavior of the purlins more accurately. For this study, wind tunnel test data obtained from the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) database was applied to the purlins and the shear and moment was calculated. These results were compared to the current code requirements provided in the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7 document: Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures. The results showed that the loads developed in the purlins subjected to wind tunnel test loadings were 3% to 49% higher on the edge of the building than those that had the ASCE 7 design loads applied. More accurately modeling the behavior of the purlins using wind tunnel test data and beam models showed that in locations where the purlins received the maximum wind force, the ASCE 7 requirements for components and cladding tended to be lower than the wind tunnel test data. However, in locations where the purlins were not experiencing the maximum wind force, the ASCE 7 requirements tended to overpredict the loads, based on the use of symmetric high wind areas to design for all wind angles.

Buildings and other infrastructures located in the coastal regions of the US have a higher level of wind vulnerability. Reducing the increasing property losses and causalities associated with severe windstorms has been the central research focus of the wind engineering community. The present wind engineering toolbox consists of building codes and standards, laboratory experiments, and field measurements. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7 standard provides wind loads only for buildings with common shapes. For complex cases it refers to physical modeling. Although this option can be economically viable for large projects, it is not cost-effective for low-rise residential houses. To circumvent these limitations, a numerical approach based on the techniques of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been developed. The recent advance in computing technology and significant developments in turbulence modeling is making numerical evaluation of wind effects a more affordable approach. The present study targeted those cases that are not addressed by the standards. These include wind loads on complex roofs for low-rise buildings, aerodynamics of tall buildings, and effects of complex surrounding buildings. Among all the turbulence models investigated, the large eddy simulation (LES) model performed the best in predicting wind loads. The application of a spatially evolving time-dependent wind velocity field with the relevant turbulence structures at the inlet boundaries was found to be essential. All the results were compared and validated with experimental data. The study also revealed CFD’s unique flow visualization and aerodynamic data generation capabilities along with a better understanding of the complex three-dimensional aerodynamics of wind-structure interactions. With the proper modeling that realistically represents the actual turbulent atmospheric boundary layer flow, CFD can offer an economical alternative to the existing wind engineering tools. CFD’s easy accessibility is expected to transform the practice of structural design for wind, resulting in more wind-resilient and sustainable systems by encouraging optimal aerodynamic and sustainable structural/building design. Thus, this method will help ensure public safety and reduce economic losses due to wind perils.

Tornadoes pose a significant danger to human life and structures. Research regarding the effects of tornado-induced loads on residential buildings is in incipient stages and there are no specialized construction standards in place to recommend criteria applicable to structures for withstanding tornadic winds. Three residential house models with different geometries were tested in the Wind-induced Damage Simulator (WDS) built at the University of Ottawa. The WDS is capable of simulating pressures induced by multidirectional and tornadic winds. The peak pressure coefficients were calculated on the walls and roofs of the houses and an analysis was performed on the effects of house model orientation, roof pitch angle, and exposure duration. The peak pressure coefficients were then compared to the NBCC 2015 code to clarify if there were any limitations of the current wind design criteria. It was found that the building orientation did not have a significant effect on pressure coefficient trends and magnitudes on the walls and roofs. For the low roof pitch angle models, it was noticed that the suction on the roof was much greater than the higher roof pitch angle models. An interesting observation was made that found that the leading edge of the walls in the direction of the clockwise tornadic flow were always under greater suction than the trailing edge, which causes a torsional effect on the entire model. When comparing the peak pressure coefficient values to the NBCC 2015 recommended values for the secondary cladding members, it was found that the CpCg stipulated in the code were similar to the experimental tornado Cp’s for the walls. However, the Cp’s on the roof were much greater in the experiments when compared to the NBCC 2015. The CpCg of Zones S and Zone R, which are the edges and central regions of the roof, greatly exceed the minimum values in the NBCC 2015. More experiments for residential house models of different geometries should be conducted in order to propose new tornado-induced pressure coefficients to be used in the design of the structure located in tornado-prone areas.Tornadoes pose a significant danger to human life and structures. Research regarding the effects of tornado-induced loads on residential buildings is in incipient stages and there are no specialized construction standards in place to recommend criteria applicable to structures for withstanding tornadic winds. Three residential house models with different geometries were tested in the Wind-induced Damage Simulator (WDS) built at the University of Ottawa. The WDS is capable of simulating pressures induced by multidirectional and tornadic winds. The peak pressure coefficients were calculated on the walls and roofs of the houses and an analysis was performed on the effects of house model orientation, roof pitch angle, and exposure duration. The peak pressure coefficients were then compared to the NBCC 2015 code to clarify if there were any limitations of the current wind design criteria. It was found that the building orientation did not have a significant effect on pressure coefficient trends and magnitudes on the walls and roofs. For the low roof pitch angle models, it was noticed that the suction on the roof was much greater than the higher roof pitch angle models. An interesting observation was made that found that the leading edge of the walls in the direction of the clockwise tornadic flow were always under greater suction than the trailing edge, which causes a torsional effect on the entire model. When comparing the peak pressure coefficient values to the NBCC 2015 recommended values for the secondary cladding members, it was found that the CpCg stipulated in the code were similar to the experimental tornado Cp’s for the walls. However, the Cp’s on the roof were much greater in the experiments when compared to the NBCC 2015. The CpCg of Zones S and Zone R, which are the edges and central regions of the roof, greatly exceed the minimum values in the NBCC 2015. More experiments for residential house models of different geometries should be conducted in order to propose new tornado-induced pressure coefficients to be used in the design of the structure located in tornado-prone areas.

Low-rise buildings are often subjected to high wind loads during hurricanes that lead to severe damage and cause water intrusion. It is therefore important to estimate accurate wind pressures for design purposes to reduce losses. Wind loads on low-rise buildings can differ significantly depending upon the laboratory in which they were measured. The differences are due in large part to inadequate simulations of the low-frequency content of atmospheric velocity fluctuations in the laboratory and to the small scale of the models used for the measurements. A new partial turbulence simulation methodology was developed for simulating the effect of low-frequency flow fluctuations on low-rise buildings more effectively from the point of view of testing accuracy and repeatability than is currently the case. The methodology was validated by comparing aerodynamic pressure data for building models obtained in the open-jet 12-Fan Wall of Wind (WOW) facility against their counterparts in a boundary-layer wind tunnel. Field measurements of pressures on Texas Tech University building and Silsoe building were also used for validation purposes. The tests in partial simulation are freed of integral length scale constraints, meaning that model length scales in such testing are only limited by blockage considerations. Thus the partial simulation methodology can be used to produce aerodynamic data for low-rise buildings by using large-scale models in wind tunnels and WOW-like facilities. This is a major advantage, because large-scale models allow for accurate modeling of architectural details, testing at higher Reynolds number, using greater spatial resolution of the pressure taps in high pressure zones, and assessing the performance of aerodynamic devices to reduce wind effects. The technique eliminates a major cause of discrepancies among measurements conducted in different laboratories and can help to standardize flow simulations for testing residential homes as well as significantly improving testing accuracy and repeatability. Partial turbulence simulation was used in the WOW to determine the performance of discontinuous perforated parapets in mitigating roof pressures. The comparisons of pressures with and without parapets showed significant reductions in pressure coefficients in the zones with high suctions. This demonstrated the potential of such aerodynamic add-on devices to reduce uplift forces.

Widespread damage to roofing materials (such as tiles and shingles) for low-rise buildings, even for weaker hurricanes, has raised concerns regarding design load provisions and construction practices. Currently the building codes used for designing low-rise building roofs are mainly based on testing results from building models which generally do not simulate the architectural features of roofing materials that may significantly influence the wind-induced pressures. Full-scale experimentation was conducted under high winds to investigate the effects of architectural details of high profile roof tiles and asphalt shingles on net pressures that are often responsible for damage to these roofing materials. Effects on the vulnerability of roofing materials were also studied. Different roof models with bare, tiled, and shingled roof decks were tested. Pressures acting on both top and bottom surfaces of the roofing materials were measured to understand their effects on the net uplift loading. The area-averaged peak pressure coefficients obtained from bare, tiled, and shingled roof decks were compared. In addition, a set of wind tunnel tests on a tiled roof deck model were conducted to verify the effects of tiles’ cavity internal pressure. Both the full-scale and the wind tunnel test results showed that underside pressure of a roof tile could either aggravate or alleviate wind uplift on the tile based on its orientation on the roof with respect to the wind angle of attack. For shingles, the underside pressure could aggravate wind uplift if the shingle is located near the center of the roof deck. Bare deck modeling to estimate design wind uplift on shingled decks may be acceptable for most locations but not for field locations; it could underestimate the uplift on shingles by 30-60%. In addition, some initial quantification of the effects of roofing materials on wind uplift was performed by studying the wind uplift load ratio for tiled versus bare deck and shingled versus bare deck. Vulnerability curves, with and without considering the effects of tiles’ cavity internal pressure, showed significant differences. Aerodynamic load provisions for low-rise buildings’ roofs and their vulnerability can thus be more accurately evaluated by considering the effects of the roofing materials.

Hurricane is one of the most destructive and costly natural hazard to the built environment and its impact on low-rise buildings, particularity, is beyond acceptable. The major objective of this research was to perform a parametric evaluation of internal pressure (IP) for wind-resistant design of low-rise buildings and wind-driven natural ventilation applications. For this purpose, a multi-scale experimental, i.e. full-scale at Wall of Wind (WoW) and small-scale at Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel (BLWT), and a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) approach was adopted. This provided new capability to assess wind pressures realistically on internal volumes ranging from small spaces formed between roof tiles and its deck to attic to room partitions. Effects of sudden breaching, existing dominant openings on building envelopes as well as compartmentalization of building interior on the IP were systematically investigated. Results of this research indicated: (i) for sudden breaching of dominant openings, the transient overshooting response was lower than the subsequent steady state peak IP and internal volume correction for low-wind-speed testing facilities was necessary. For example a building without volume correction experienced a response four times faster and exhibited 30-40% lower mean and peak IP; (ii) for existing openings, vent openings uniformly distributed along the roof alleviated, whereas one sided openings aggravated the IP; (iii) larger dominant openings exhibited a higher IP on the building envelope, and an off-center opening on the wall exhibited (30-40%) higher IP than center located openings; (iv) compartmentalization amplified the intensity of IP and; (v) significant underneath pressure was measured for field tiles, warranting its consideration during net pressure evaluations. The study aimed at wind driven natural ventilation indicated: (i) the IP due to cross ventilation was 1.5 to 2.5 times higher for Ainlet/Aoutlet>1 compared to cases where Ainlet/AoutletCFD based IP responses. Comparisons with ASCE 7-10 consistently demonstrated that the code underestimated peak positive and suction IP.

Large-scale testing of low-rise buildings or components of tall buildings is essential as it provides more representative information about the realistic wind effects than the typical small scale studies, but as the model size increases, relatively less large-scale turbulence in the upcoming flow can be generated. This results in a turbulence power spectrum lacking low-frequency turbulence content. This deficiency is known to have significant effects on the estimated peak wind loads. To overcome these limitations, the method of Partial Turbulence Simulation (PTS) has been developed recently in the FIU Wall of Wind lab to analytically compensate for the effects of the missing low-frequency content of the spectrum. This method requires post-test analysis procedures and is based on the quasi-steady assumptions. The current study was an effort to enhance that technique by investigating the effect of scaling and the range of applicability of the method by considering the limitations risen from the underlying theory, and to simplify the 2DPTS (includes both in-plane components of the turbulence) by proposing a weighted average method. Investigating the effect of Reynolds number on peak aerodynamic pressures was another objective of the study. The results from five tested building models show as the model size was increased, PTS results showed a better agreement with the available field data from TTU building. Although for the smaller models (i.e., 1:100,1:50) almost a full range of turbulence spectrum was present, the highest peaks observed at full-scale were not reproduced, which apparently was because of the Reynolds number effect. The most accurate results were obtained when the PTS was used in the case with highest Reynolds number, which was the1:6 scale model with a less than 5% blockage and a xLum/bm ratio of 0.78. Besides that, the results showed that the weighted average PTS method can be used in lieu of the 2DPTS approach. So to achieve the most accurate results, a large-scale test followed by a PTS peak estimation method deemed to be the desirable approach which also allows the xLum/bm values much smaller than the ASCE recommended numbers.

The performance of building envelopes and roofing systems significantly depends on accurate knowledge of wind loads and the response of envelope components under realistic wind conditions. Wind tunnel testing is a well-established practice to determine wind loads on structures. For small structures much larger model scales are needed than for large structures, to maintain modeling accuracy and minimize Reynolds number effects. In these circumstances the ability to obtain a large enough turbulence integral scale is usually compromised by the limited dimensions of the wind tunnel meaning that it is not possible to simulate the low frequency end of the turbulence spectrum. Such flows are called flows with Partial Turbulence Simulation. In this dissertation, the test procedure and scaling requirements for tests in partial turbulence simulation are discussed. A theoretical method is proposed for including the effects of low-frequency turbulences in the post-test analysis. In this theory the turbulence spectrum is divided into two distinct statistical processes, one at high frequencies which can be simulated in the wind tunnel, and one at low frequencies which can be treated in a quasi-steady manner. The joint probability of load resulting from the two processes is derived from which full-scale equivalent peak pressure coefficients can be obtained. The efficacy of the method is proved by comparing predicted data derived from tests on large-scale models of the Silsoe Cube and Texas-Tech University buildings in Wall of Wind facility at Florida International University with the available full-scale data. For multi-layer building envelopes such as rain-screen walls, roof pavers, and vented energy efficient walls not only peak wind loads but also their spatial gradients are important. Wind permeable roof claddings like roof pavers are not well dealt with in many existing building codes and standards. Large-scale experiments were carried out to investigate the wind loading on concrete pavers including wind blow-off tests and pressure measurements. Simplified guidelines were developed for design of loose-laid roof pavers against wind uplift. The guidelines are formatted so that use can be made of the existing information in codes and standards such as ASCE 7-10 on pressure coefficients on components and cladding.