A mixed integer optimization model is developed to determine both the optimal location of transit centres to serve BC Transit's Lower Mainland route network and the optimal allocation of buses to those centres. The existing five transit centres are explored as well as five candidate facilities. The model considers nonrevenue transportation cost (deadhead), capital cost of constructing candidate transit centres and the salvage values of existing centres. A linear regression is generated to produce the travel times from the terminus of a route to potential transit centre locations. The optimal solution is determined, resulting in potential annual savings of over $560,000 compared to the current location-allocation strategy. Various experiments are performed to examine the sensitivity of model parameters and to determine the effect of different planning scenarios. The effect of the optimal solution on driver relief is considered. Conclusions as well as directions for further research are offered. / Business, Sauder School of / Graduate

Metaphor research has become widespread. However, students’ understanding of metaphor in informational text has received little study. With increased use of informational trade books in the classroom, research in this area is needed. Fifty-five grade six students with Canadian English as their first language participated in the study. Their understanding of metaphors in excerpts from three recently published informational trade books was examined by the use of the reading think aloud technique and multiple choice activities. One think aloud was completed by each student in both individual and dyadic conditions. Multiple choice activities were completed individually after reading, but with the text available. The think-aloud protocols were examined using specific-trait analysis, holistic scoring, and miscue analysis. The multiple choice activities were scored against anticipated adult-like understanding and the results were subjected to standard statistical tests. Level of understanding of metaphors varied widely among students, with the overall average being about 65%. Contrary to prediction, understanding was significantly higher in the individual condition compared to the dyadic condition. Although part of this difference could be attributed to differences in passage difficulty, the anticipated scaffolding effect of reading with a partner was not found. The reading think aloud was a rich source of information about both the meaning students constructed and the meaning-construction process. The study suggested that the think aloud could be used in the classroom as an effective learning device, particularly in that it allowed less-capable readers to participate as equal partners in what might otherwise have been a frustrating reading task. Overall, there emerged a picture of students at various points along the path to full adult mastery of metaphor, with some students already demonstrating an adult level of understanding. Level of text understanding was consistent with level of metaphor understanding. The only metaphor-type effect identified was for metaphors with copula-verb syntactic-frame structure. Abstractness of the words in the metaphors did not affect meaning construction; however, conventionality of the metaphorical expressions did influence understanding.

Awareness of the spread of invasive plant species has grown, but quantitative measures of their impacts are lacking. This study analyses the impact of Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) on breeding bird diversity finding a significant difference in bird diversity between “natural” and R. armeniacus-dominated understoreys. More bird species were noted in habitats with greater structural and compositional diversity. Simpson’s richness/evenness index was significantly different between habitat types for Stanley Park and Maplewood Flats (P<0.05) but not Jericho Park (P>0.05), likely due to lower overall bird diversity at Jericho Park and lack of overstorey trees at R. armeniacus thickets. When R. armeniacus is the dominant understorey shrub in a forested setting it has the greatest negative impact on breeding bird diversity.

Metaphor research has become widespread. However, students’ understanding of metaphor in informational text has received little study. With increased use of informational trade books in the classroom, research in this area is needed. Fifty-five grade six students with Canadian English as their first language participated in the study. Their understanding of metaphors in excerpts from three recently published informational trade books was examined by the use of the reading think aloud technique and multiple choice activities. One think aloud was completed by each student in both individual and dyadic conditions. Multiple choice activities were completed individually after reading, but with the text available. The think-aloud protocols were examined using specific-trait analysis, holistic scoring, and miscue analysis. The multiple choice activities were scored against anticipated adult-like understanding and the results were subjected to standard statistical tests. Level of understanding of metaphors varied widely among students, with the overall average being about 65%. Contrary to prediction, understanding was significantly higher in the individual condition compared to the dyadic condition. Although part of this difference could be attributed to differences in passage difficulty, the anticipated scaffolding effect of reading with a partner was not found. The reading think aloud was a rich source of information about both the meaning students constructed and the meaning-construction process. The study suggested that the think aloud could be used in the classroom as an effective learning device, particularly in that it allowed less-capable readers to participate as equal partners in what might otherwise have been a frustrating reading task. Overall, there emerged a picture of students at various points along the path to full adult mastery of metaphor, with some students already demonstrating an adult level of understanding. Level of text understanding was consistent with level of metaphor understanding. The only metaphor-type effect identified was for metaphors with copula-verb syntactic-frame structure. Abstractness of the words in the metaphors did not affect meaning construction; however, conventionality of the metaphorical expressions did influence understanding. / Education, Faculty of / Language and Literacy Education (LLED), Department of / Graduate

Trail biking in the Lower Fraser Valley has become popular as an outdoor recreation activity in the last 10 to 15 years. A major attraction of this activity is the freedom it gives the trail bikers to go almost anywhere. However, with increasing urbanisation, the number of areas on which to ride trail bikes has diminished. With encroachment of residential land on still existing trail bike haunts, the number of complaints of noise, trespass, environmental damage and recreation user conflict is growing. Provision of a special use area for trail bikes has proved an acceptable solution to similar problems in other parts of North America. On the surface, it seems logical that a special use area might be equally acceptable in the study area. However, it is contended that the Lower Fraser Valley presents a different combination of social and environmental factors, and that the design of an acceptable solution to the trail bike problem requires more than mere provision of a special use area. As a methodology for designing such a solution, a model based upon 'planning under uncertainty’ is utilized. This model consists of two cycles; the 'plan-making cycle' and the 'plan implementing cycle'. The objective of the 'plan making' cycle is to design an acceptable solution to the trail bike problem in the study area. First, several aspects of the problem are explored. The demand for trail bike facilities, and how this demand has been met is examined. The problems generated by trail biking in the study area are identified and discussed. From these investigations, criteria for an acceptable solution are formulated. Four solutions are examined with respect to these criteria. These are: a) to do nothing, b) to prohibit trail bike use completely, c) to prohibit trail bike use from certain areas and d) to accommodate trail bike use. Only the latter, or a combination of prohibition and accommodation are considered acceptable. However, even if a special use area is provided, there is no basis for prediction, that it will be used, nor that it will be tolerated by the residents of the Lower Fraser Valley, nor is it known what will be the environmental consequences of such action. This uncertainty is reduced by entering the 'plan-implementing cycle'. The purpose of this cycle is to implement the chosen solution for an experimental period, and in doing so monitor aspects that have been identified as uncertain. There are four phases in this cycle» action, monitoring, analysis and evaluation. The results of the monitoring program are evaluated on the basis of how well the ‘plan’ meets the stated criteria for an acceptable solution. Evaluation will determine if the experiment should continue with modifications based on the first round of a cycle, or if a return to the plan-making cycle is required as a result of unexpected events. This model for planning under uncertainty is illustrated by describing how the plan implementing cycle could be applied in the study area. The case for choosing Eagle Ridge as the experimental site is stated and a site plan and monitoring programme is described. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Landscape is a medium of expression and a reflection of the beliefs of the people who inhabit it. It carries symbolic meanings that emerge from the values by which people define themselves; values grounded in culture. These symbols stem from elements of the natural environment, stories passed on through generations, or from experiences interacting with others. The indigenous peoples of Canada have a culture rich in traditional art, ceremony, and sustainable development and holistic integration of landscape. Contemporary First Nation culture draws from this past to inform the future. This phenomenon exemplifies the necessity for cultural expression in First Nation landscapes of today. The Semiahmoo First Nation in Lower Mainland British Columbia is a Coast Salish group occupying approximately 380 acres of land on the Pacific coastline. River and estuarine habitats, significant species richness and dense vegetation characterize the area and identify the primary motive for Semiahmoo traditional encampment on its shores. Changes in the past century have included colonial settlement to the region, periods of industrial and resource economies, a decrease in band population and subsequent decline in cultural practices. Current increasing recreation and development interests have created urgency for the reawakening of cultural expression in the landscape. Initial literature research about First Nations in Northwest Canada and a biophysical analysis provided introductory information, followed by community discussions which provided a deeper understanding of the people and of the place. A design vocabulary of traditional and contemporary elements was composed to guide and unify the program and spatial components of the design. The resulting design focuses on the public realm of the Reserve clearly defining Semiahmoo identity and sense of place. Land use issues were addressed and delineated public and private areas, ecological enhancements and displayed potential for growth on the site. The design respects the bicultural interface of the Reserve while providing cultural and environmental education. The First Nation value system possesses a tangible and spiritual quality; rooted in the creatures and elements of their surroundings. Expression of the Semiahmoo peoples' beliefs and values in the landscape enriches the experiential qualities of the place and reverence for its past and future.

The intensity and emotional demands of the health care environment place exceptionally high performance expectations and stress on hospital social workers. Critical Incident Stress (CIS), a specific type of stress associated with dramatic, emotionally overwhelming situations, known as Critical Incidents (CIs), produce several emotional and physical reactions that can threaten the well-being of the hospital social worker. CIS, as experienced by hospital social workers, is absent from the literature and not well understood. The purpose of this study was to describe how hospital social workers appraised, reacted to, and coped with CIs in their work environment. Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) theoretical framework of stress appraisal and coping was used to guide this descriptive study. A sample of 30 hospital social workers was recruited from two Vancouver tertiary care hospitals. Four instruments (Participant Information Sheet, Critical Incident Information Form, Emotional Appraisal Scale, and Ways of Coping Scale) were used to gain knowledge on how hospital social workers appraised, reacted to, and coped with CIs in their work environment. Quantitative data were coded, qualitative data were subjected to content analysis, and descriptive statistics calculated. Data revealed that hospital social workers encountered CIs in their work environment and that the majority of CIs centred on death-related events. The primary traits of events appraised as CIs were novelty, suddenness, and uncertainty. Respondents reacted to the CI with a variety of emotional (anxiety, fear, frustration, worry, anger) and physical reactions (feeling overwhelmed, fatigued, withdrawn, anxious, difficulty with sleeping), and although they experienced some discomfort, these reactions were not debilitating. Most hospital social workers indicated that their personal beliefs had been challenged by the CI and revealed that they were unsure as to what their social work role or function should have been during the event. However, despite this, respondents remained confident and comfortable with the decisions they made. Hospital social workers appeared to cope well with CIs, used a variety of emotion- and problem-focused coping strategies, and reported few negative effects on their professional and/or personal lives. The top four coping strategies utilized by respondents were seeking social support, planful problemsolving, positive reappraisal, and self-control. The implications of the findings for hospital social work administration, social work training and education, hospital social work practice, and future research are discussed.

This paper examines the plight of the incarcerated mentally ill. After a consideration of the historical factors which have contributed to the current philosophy and pattern of services throughout North America, and specifically in British Columbia, the paper reports on a qualitative study using participant observation, informal and formal interviews, and Strauss' Constant Comparative Methods which was undertaken to identify the needs of the mentally ill individuals who are serving a term of imprisonment in the Health Care Centre of the Lower Mainland Regional Correctional Centre. Altogether there were eighteen formal participants. They included six mentally ill offenders, six correctional personnel, and six health care professionals. A critical analysis of the major findings -alienation, lack of organizational commitment, and the incongruencies between our social policies and practices - provided the basis for program recommendations. The challenge lies in the building of a vision that values humane treatment for the marginal members of our society. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

The intensity and emotional demands of the health care environment place exceptionally high performance expectations and stress on hospital social workers. Critical Incident Stress (CIS), a specific type of stress associated with dramatic, emotionally overwhelming situations, known as Critical Incidents (CIs), produce several emotional and physical reactions that can threaten the well-being of the hospital social worker. CIS, as experienced by hospital social workers, is absent from the literature and not well understood. The purpose of this study was to describe how hospital social workers appraised, reacted to, and coped with CIs in their work environment. Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) theoretical framework of stress appraisal and coping was used to guide this descriptive study. A sample of 30 hospital social workers was recruited from two Vancouver tertiary care hospitals. Four instruments (Participant Information Sheet, Critical Incident Information Form, Emotional Appraisal Scale, and Ways of Coping Scale) were used to gain knowledge on how hospital social workers appraised, reacted to, and coped with CIs in their work environment. Quantitative data were coded, qualitative data were subjected to content analysis, and descriptive statistics calculated. Data revealed that hospital social workers encountered CIs in their work environment and that the majority of CIs centred on death-related events. The primary traits of events appraised as CIs were novelty, suddenness, and uncertainty. Respondents reacted to the CI with a variety of emotional (anxiety, fear, frustration, worry, anger) and physical reactions (feeling overwhelmed, fatigued, withdrawn, anxious, difficulty with sleeping), and although they experienced some discomfort, these reactions were not debilitating. Most hospital social workers indicated that their personal beliefs had been challenged by the CI and revealed that they were unsure as to what their social work role or function should have been during the event. However, despite this, respondents remained confident and comfortable with the decisions they made. Hospital social workers appeared to cope well with CIs, used a variety of emotion- and problem-focused coping strategies, and reported few negative effects on their professional and/or personal lives. The top four coping strategies utilized by respondents were seeking social support, planful problemsolving, positive reappraisal, and self-control. The implications of the findings for hospital social work administration, social work training and education, hospital social work practice, and future research are discussed. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

Landscape is a medium of expression and a reflection of the beliefs of the people who inhabit it. It carries symbolic meanings that emerge from the values by which people define themselves; values grounded in culture. These symbols stem from elements of the natural environment, stories passed on through generations, or from experiences interacting with others. The indigenous peoples of Canada have a culture rich in traditional art, ceremony, and sustainable development and holistic integration of landscape. Contemporary First Nation culture draws from this past to inform the future. This phenomenon exemplifies the necessity for cultural expression in First Nation landscapes of today. The Semiahmoo First Nation in Lower Mainland British Columbia is a Coast Salish group occupying approximately 380 acres of land on the Pacific coastline. River and estuarine habitats, significant species richness and dense vegetation characterize the area and identify the primary motive for Semiahmoo traditional encampment on its shores. Changes in the past century have included colonial settlement to the region, periods of industrial and resource economies, a decrease in band population and subsequent decline in cultural practices. Current increasing recreation and development interests have created urgency for the reawakening of cultural expression in the landscape. Initial literature research about First Nations in Northwest Canada and a biophysical analysis provided introductory information, followed by community discussions which provided a deeper understanding of the people and of the place. A design vocabulary of traditional and contemporary elements was composed to guide and unify the program and spatial components of the design. The resulting design focuses on the public realm of the Reserve clearly defining Semiahmoo identity and sense of place. Land use issues were addressed and delineated public and private areas, ecological enhancements and displayed potential for growth on the site. The design respects the bicultural interface of the Reserve while providing cultural and environmental education. The First Nation value system possesses a tangible and spiritual quality; rooted in the creatures and elements of their surroundings. Expression of the Semiahmoo peoples' beliefs and values in the landscape enriches the experiential qualities of the place and reverence for its past and future. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Architecture and Landscape Architecture (SALA), School of / Graduate