The submitted portfolio and accompanying thesis focus on the subject of doubles and duplication and their application as musical materials and compositional devices in my own work and, to a lesser extent, throughout the history of music and other artistic disciplines. In this study I look at the acoustic, structural, perceptual and aesthetic implications derived from the duplication of sonic materials, instruments, objects, setups, gestures and performers. From a general perspective, the use of duplication raises a number of issues of identical sounds by two or more sonic sources, the importance of synchronicity or asynchronicity in the suggestion of aural and visual analogies, the role of distance in the establishment of auditory correspondences, the degree of similarity required by specific materials to be identified as doubles, the role of the performer in creating a sense of gestural and performative duplication, the relationship between acoustic and acousmatic sources in the delineation of sonic parallels, etc. In this thesis, the subject of duplication is chiefly regarded from spatial, performative and sonic perspectives. The sections focusing on spatial issues examine the function of duplicated setups of objects and instruments in the space of performance. The analysis of performative elements addresses the role of gestural duplication and doppelgangers as musical and scenic resources. Finally, the sections on sound investigate the perceptual and aesthetic effects of duplicated sonic sources, echoic interactions and sonic displacements. This thesis is structured into two main parts. The first part (chapters 1 & 2) examines the different possible categories and models of duplication and their usage throughout music history. The second part (chapters 3 & 4) focuses on the application and different roles of duplication in my own music. The issue of duplication has been explored in the works composed throughout the research process. A total of six pieces (approximately 105 minutes of music) have been written over the course of this PhD. The issues present in these compositions have been thoroughly examined in my thesis, becoming the main object of study. Each of these works approaches duplication in a different manner, highlighting the versatility and potential compositional applications of this phenomenon.

Diverging explanations of local multiparametric schemata are found in music of the common practice period (c. 1600–c. 1900). Associative statistical theories describe schemata as situated structures in particular times and places, whereas generative theories present these constructions as features formed through stability in universal and general rule systems. Associative-statistical theories of schemata elucidate the culturally conditioned relationships between features (distinctive attributes commonly used in grammars and schemata), but do not show the influence of universal psychological constraints; generative theories reveal the implicit structure of music, but do not formalise particular grammatical features and contexts. A synthesis of generative and associative-statistical approaches is necessary to model the interaction between universal and particular constraints of grammars and schemata. This dissertation focuses on a novel localised schema formed in the Classical instrumental grammar, termed the butterfly schema. It is posited that the butterfly schema is generated by a tendency for congruence that is manifest in and between the particular features of this grammar. Computational musicology and psychology provide interdisciplinary insight on the formal possibilities and limitations of grammatical structure. Computational models of schemata and grammars show how the congruent features of musical structure can be represented and formalised. However, they also highlight the difficulties found in the automatic analyses of multiparametric relationships, and may be limited on account of their inductive frameworks. Psychological approaches are important for establishing universal laws of cognition, but are limited in their potential to account for the diversity of musical structuring in grammars. The synthesis of associative-statistical and generative approaches in the present dissertation permits modelling the combination of the universal and particular attributes of butterfly schemata. Butterfly schemata are dependent on the particular grammars of periods of history, but are constrained by the tendency for congruence, which is proposed to be a cognitive universal. The features of the butterfly schema and the Classical instrumental grammar are examined and compared against the features of the Baroque and Romantic grammars, showing how they are formed from diverse types of congruent structuring. The butterfly schema is a congruent grammatical category of the Classical instrumental grammar that comprises: chords that are close to the tonic in pitch space (with a chiastic tension curve starting and ending on the tonic); a textural and metrical structure that is regular and forms a regular duple hierarchy at the level of regular functional harmonic change and at two immediately higher levels; and simple harmonic-rhythm ratios (1:1 and 3:1). A survey conducted using arbitrary corpora in European instrumental music, c. 1750–c.1850, shows the distribution of butterfly schemata. Butterfly schemata are more common in the Classical-period sample (c. 1750–c. 1800) than in the Romantic-period sample (c. 1800–c.1850), suggesting that the tendency for congruence manifest in and between the features common in the Classical grammar generates butterfly schemata. A second component to the statistical analysis concerns the type of schemata observed, since the tendency for congruence is presumed to also apply to the type of features that form in butterfly schemata. Maximally congruent features are generated more commonly than minimally congruent features, indicating the influence of the tendency for congruence. This dissertation presents a formulation of the Classical instrumental grammar as a multiparametrically congruent system, and a novel explanation and integration of the concepts of grammars and schemata. A final component to the dissertation poses that the features of the Classical instrumental grammar and butterfly schema follow a distinct order of dependency, governed by the mechanism of selection in culture. Although the tendency for congruence governs all features of a grammar, features are also formed by the top-down action of culture which selects those features. Thus, a top-down hierarchical selection model is presented which describes how the butterfly schema is formed through the order of selection of features in the Classical instrumental grammar.

This dissertation critically examines the presentation of new music in live concerts by three Scottish orchestras. It considers what they have commissioned, what performed, the context in which the music has been programmed, and who was involved. The orchestras are the three which are established on a permanent basis and give regular subscription series in Scotland: the BBC Scottish Symphony, Royal Scottish National, and Scottish Chamber Orchestras. The study contributes to the debate around classical music programming of new music, taking these orchestras as examples. It asks how in practice some of those responsible for programming in the period from 1945 to 2015 have reconciled conflicting expectations and desires. On the one hand there is a vast heritage, an 'imaginary museum', of old music, and it is this which most audiences want to hear. On the other hand, living composers continue to write and some audiences want to hear their music performed. This is music which speaks of and to our own times. The dissertation asks about some of the factors which have influenced programmers' decisions and how those programmers have presented new music to the public — alongside the old, in special events, or in another way. It considers the advantages and disadvantages of each type of programming. Underlying these questions is the changing status in the west of western classical music. Even if it is not dying, as some commentators have stated, it is but one among many musics, with a relatively small market share. Given that situation, are orchestras, which are heavily dependent on public and/or private funding, still relevant to contemporary society? And if so, is part of their role to reflect aspects of that society by playing new music?

A variety of work has been carried out investigating the suitability of interactive genetic algorithms (IGAs) for musical composition. There have been some promising results demonstrating that it is, in principle, an effective approach. Modern sound synthesis and processing techniques (SSPTs) are often very complex and difficult to use. They often consist of tens or hundreds of parameters and a large range of values can be assigned to each parameter. This results in an immense number of parameter combinations; listening to the result of each one is clearly not viable. Furthermore, the effect each parameter has on the audio output may not be immediately obvious. Effectively using these systems can require a considerable time commitment and a great deal of theoretical knowledge. This means that in many cases these techniques are not being used to their full potential. IGAs offer a solution to this problem by providing a user with a simpler, more accessible interface to a range of SSPTs. This allows the user to navigate more effectively through the parameter space and explore the range of materials which can be generated by an SSPT. This thesis presents compositions and software that investigate a range of approaches to the application of IGAs to sound design, composition and performance. While investigating these areas, the aim has been to overcome the limitations of previous IGA based systems and extend this approach into new areas. A number of IGA based systems have been developed which allow a user to develop varied compositions consisting of diverse and complex material with minimal training.

Between the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the following one, the Napoleonic wars caused the whole of Northern Italy to live an unstable political era, the old absolutist regimes being replaced by republican states strongly subjected to France. In the case of Lombardy and its capital city Milan, for almost a century a part of the Habsburg Monarchy, this era was particularly intense and problematic: following the alternate outcome of the war, the government changed repeatedly from monarchy to republic over rather short time span. In a situation as such, rather unique in the history of the city, the various governments made a programmatic use of the arts and especially music for propaganda and control purposes. In Milan, a prominent venue for operatic performances already during the second half of the eighteenth century, musical theatre was identified as the primary vehicle for the dissemination of the rapidly changing political and social values and the monitoring of public opinion: La Scala opera house, at the very centre of Milan’s both musical and social life already in the Habsburg years, became the centre of diffusion of new cultural policies and social mechanisms. In addition to a carefully conceived and implemented plan of intervention within the theatre, new occasions were also found for the performance of appositely composed music outside the theatrical buildings in the city’s public spaces, i.e. the great republican feasts, rather complex events mixing music, visual arts, celebrative elements and popular entertainment. Cultural and more specifically musical phenomena taking place both inside and outside the theatre also played a major part in shaping Milan’s cultural environment and defining its role in the following Risorgimento years. Drawing on both dedicated literature and an extensive research based on archival and primary sources, the present thesis aims at reconstructing the unique historical context of these years and its consequences on the Milanese society and cultural production, also analysing the effect that the repeated government changes had on Milan’s musical environment not only in terms of repertoire, but also in the complex links established between politics, society and music. Traditionally overlooked, these years represent not only a complex transition between two very different historical and cultural contexts, but also a highly creative and vibrant period that had undeniable consequences on the following years.

This thesis is an analysis of the development of new music in occupied Germany from the end of World War Two, on 8 May 1945, until the end of 1946, in terms of the creation of institutions for the propagation of new music, in the form of festivals, concert series, radio stations, educational institutions and journals focusing on such a field, alongside an investigation into technical and aesthetic aspects of music being composed during this period. I argue that a large number of the key decisions which would affect quite fundamentally the later trajectory of new music in West Germany for some decades were made during this period of a little over eighteen months. I also argue that subsequent developments up to the year 1951, by which time the infrastructure was essentially complete, were primarily an extension and expansion of the early period, when many of the key appointments were made, and institutions created. I also consider the role of new music in mainstream programming of orchestras, opera houses, chamber music societies, and consider all of these factors in terms of the occupation policies of the three Western powers – the USA, the UK and France. Furthermore, I compare these developments to those which occurred in during the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, of which I give an overview, and argue as a result that the post-war developments, rather than being radically new, constituted in many ways a continuation and sometimes distillation of what was in place especially in the Weimar years. I conclude that the short period at the centre of my thesis is of fundamental importance not only for the course of German new music, but that in Europe in general.

This is a practice-based research project about a new operatic adaptation of Sarah Kane’s 4.48 Psychosis (Methuen, 2000). The opera was written and the research conducted during a three-year Doctoral Composer-in-Residence scheme with the Guildhall School of Music & Drama (GSMD) and the Royal Opera House (ROH). This commentary, together with the score and supporting materials, outlines various compositional approaches to working with non-sung text in opera. This research expands the composer’s previous practice of working with spoken text in concert music, and places this opera in the context of that previous work and the work of other composers, theatre-makers and electronic music artists. Five specific approaches to non-sung text are discussed in detail, always with reference to the dramaturgy of Kane’s text and drawing on examples from the opera: four concerned with spoken text (the ‘Opera Thought-Bubble’, Voiceover, Mid-phrase Switching, Tape-cutting) and one concerned with visually-presented text (Percussion Dialogues). The five approaches are evaluated in context of the premiere performances of the opera in May 2016, and the potential for further practice-based research on this topic is discussed.

The following commentary details aspects of my recent compositions attempting to bring about intersections between subjects and objects. I demonstrate how my compositions highlight an interplay between the poles of subjectivity vs objectivity, human vs nonhuman and nature vs culture. Various musical precedents rooted in objectivity form the basis of this endeavour, such as the inaudible cosmic vibrations proposed by the Pythagoreans' Musica universalis, the chance procedures of mid twentieth-century experimental music, and the Platonic forms of Tom Johnson. However, although these standpoints do attempt to broaden the scope of music beyond the human sphere, they remain most often framed by transcendent discourse without explicitly addressing the subjective implications of such work. I propose an approach to composition that distances itself from a transcendental perspective, instead choosing to highlight the effects that objectivity elicits in human beings, while maintaining the presence of an external reality that remains inscrutable. Thus, my portfolio addresses the precise ways in which subjectivity remains present even within an objective musical discourse, whether through exploring psychological responses to chance, the existential boredom brought on by unchanging forms, subjective reactions to the objecti�cation of the human body, and the input of the imagination in the face of withdrawn or speculative musical objects.

Virtual bands have been present in popular culture for decades, and they have become the topic of increased scholarly interest over the past few years. Despite this new work, however, there remains a need for more indepth critical studies into gender and ethnicity in virtual phenomena, as this approach promises to open up new areas of enquiry. Focussing on questions of gender and ethnicity, my thesis will investigate the mechanics through which identity is constructed in animated, puppet, and hologram virtual band characters. My thesis will draw on a range of empirical, theoretical, and ethnographic approaches in order to analyse how and to what extent virtual band characters are created and disseminated by those in the industry, on the one hand, and by fans, on the other. In particular, I consider this question through the concepts of agency (perceived and attributed), authorship, and authenticity, and in relation to the notion of suspension of disbelief, examining ways in which animation affords greater potential for forms of ‘layered awareness.’ Following a historical overview of virtual bands, and a critical appraisal of relevant theoretical perspectives on this topic, the thesis moves to a close reading of two case studies that reinforce and subvert gender and ethnic stereotypes commonly found in popular culture: Gorillaz and Vocaloid. These examples present different aspects of identity construction in virtual media, the former apparently led by the band’s creators, the other by its fans. Within Gorillaz, my discussion centres around the female guitarist Noodle, who, I will argue, is a modern-day Orientalist construction. By contrast, the chapters on Vocaloid draw on fan studies techniques to show that Vocaloid’s fan base contains a large, unexpected demographic, and that part of the fans’ dedication stems from their confirmed expectations of gender and ethnic identity in the Vocaloid characters.

Christian theologians throughout the centuries have looked at the Church from different perspectives: dogmatic, institutional, social, cultural, etc. The main concern of this thesis is to look at the Church from the perspective of her image in India and to evaluate the various ecclesiologies proposed in this context. However, the study concentrates on the works of M.M. Thomas, one of the outstanding theologians of the present times. `The basis of any ecclesiology needs to be Christology.' It is from this proposition that the various ecclesiologies are evaluated and the main argument for confessing Christ in India is developed. It is maintained that unless the Church recognises her centre outside herself in Jesus Christ and His Kingdom, she cannot confess Christ's Lordship. From this perspective the nature of the Church's mission is recognised and it is pointed out that the mission of the Church determines her nature. It is further suggested that the nature of the Kingdom of God is the key to relate the Church to her context of poverty and religious pluralism. Furthermore, it is maintained that the Church lives in the context where the poor are seeking humanity and the people of other faiths are also involved in the issues facing humanity. This makes it urgent to look at the emphasis on the availability of `the New Humanity' in Christ and thus to see the mission of the Church in wholistic terms, as both salvation and humanisation. This also means that the methods of mission can no longer be seen as mere proclamation or involvement but that both are necessary. These aspects taken together form the basic premise from which follows the suggestion that the Church needs to see herself from the perspective of her mission, as a sign and an agent of the Kingdom: it is only when she confesses Christ's Lordship in a wholistic way, including her role as a suffering servant, that she can present Him as the crucified and risen Lord. It is not dogma nor institutional understanding which defines the nature of the Church, but only people's relationship with Christ. However, it is also emphasised here that there cannot be a docetic understanding of the Church, but that the relationship with Christ must be expressed in People's relationships with one another. Only in her togetherness is the Church the Body of Christ, not as a variety of unrelated groups. It must be maintained that the Church cannot be a ghetto community interested in her own affairs, but must be an open fellowship where the poor and the oppressed will find salvation which includes the promise of redeemed humanity in Jesus Christ.