A erva-mate, Ilex paraguariensis, é uma espécie dioica, clímax com ampla área de distribuição natural. A despeito de sua importância econômica e ecológica são escassos os estudos de conservação e genética da espécie. O objetivo geral do trabalho foi estudar a diversidade genética, a estrutura genética espacial e o fluxo gênico por dispersão de sementes em duas populações naturais de I. paraguariensis na área do entorno do Parque Nacional do Iguaçu, com uso de marcadores moleculares microssatélites. Foram encontrados baixos níveis de diversidade genética em oito loci analisados, com divergência genética maior entre do que dentro das populações. A I. paraguariensis apresentou baixa densidade populacional, com 0,27 a 0,29 árvores por ha-1 e distribuição espacial agregada, entretanto não foi observado evidência de estrutura genética espacial. A média da distância da dispersão de pólen foi de 393 m e a dispersão de sementes atingiu distância próximas a 2.000 m. Os resultados obtidos, sugerem que a base genética da espécie não é ampla, o que pode dispor a I. paraguariensis a um estado crítico de conservação, devido a de erosão genética provocada pela destruição de seus ambientes naturais. / The yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensis, is a species dioecious, climax with wide natural range. Despite their economic and ecological importance are few studies of genetics and conservation of the specie. The overall objective this work was to study the genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure and gene flow by seed dispersal in two natural populations of I. paraguariensis around the National Park of Iguassu, using microsatellite molecular markers. It found low levels of genetic diversity at eight loci analyzed, and greater genetic divergence between populations than within population. The I. paraguariensis showed low population density with 0.27 to 0.29 trees per ha-1 and spatial clustered distribution, however was not observed evidence of spatial genetic structure. The average distance of pollen dispersal was 393 m and seed dispersal reached near 2,000 m. The results suggest that the genetic basis of species is not large, which may carry the I. paraguariensis to critical state of conservation due to genetic erosion caused by the destruction of their natural environments.

Introdução: O estudo da ação biológica de compostos bioativos e de nutrientes, a fim de que se possa explicar a relação entre o consumo de alimentos e a redução do risco de doenças, é uma das áreas que tem aplicação direta com a saúde pública. A erva mate (Ilex paraguariensis) é uma planta rica em compostos fenólicos (ácidos clorogênicos), extensivamente metabolizados após a ingestão. O conhecimento detalhado sobre os compostos formados pela metabolização dos mesmos, concentrações e tecidos-alvo é fundamental para o completo esclarecimento sobre os mecanismos de ação envolvidos. Objetivo: Avaliar a biotransformação dos ácidos fenólicos do chá mate in vivo em ratos Wistar. Métodos: Os animais foram eutanasiados 90 min (ensaio piloto) ou 30, 60, 120, 240 e 480 minutos (ensaio principal) após a administração de chá mate ou padrão de ácido 5-cafeoilquínico (5CQA) por gavagem. O grupo Controle recebeu solução salina. No ensaio piloto foram analisados plasma, fígado, rins, músculo, estômago e intestino delgado para identificação dos compostos fenólicos e com base nos resultados definida a dose de 2g de chá mate solúvel/kg de peso do animal para ser usada no ensaio principal, que corresponde a 240 mg de fenólicos totais/kg peso, dose administrada ao grupo Padrão na forma de 5-CQA. Quantificação dos compostos fenólicos foi realizada no plasma, fígado, estômago, intestino grosso e urina dos animais do ensaio principal. As análises foram realizadas por UPLC/DAD-MS, após desenvolvimento e validação das metodologias para extração e análise dos ácidos fenólicos nas amostras. O chá mate foi avaliado quanto ao perfil e teor de compostos fenólicos por UPLC/DADMS. Resultados: As metodologias desenvolvidas para extração e análise dos ácidos fenólicos nas amostras biológicas apresentaram bons níveis de recuperação e precisão. Os limites de detecção e quantificação foram determinados para cada fluido/tecido. No ensaio piloto, foram detectados ácidos clorogênicos intactos em todas as amostras, assim como uma série de metabólitos de fase I e II. No ensaio principal, os ácidos clorogênicos livres foram os principais ácidos fenólicos presentes no estômago e intestino grosso, enquanto no plasma, fígado e urina os compostos mais abundantes eram os metabólitos, em ambos os grupos, em especial o ácido caféico ligado ao ácido glicurônico/grupos sulfato e o ácido 3hidroxifenilpropiônico (livre) no grupo Erva Mate e os ácidos feruloilquínicos (FQAas) e ácido 3-hidrofenilpropiônico no grupo Padrão. Demonstrou-se que a absorção e metabolização dos ácidos clorogênicos começa no estômago, mas a maior parte é absorvida no intestino grosso, especialmente após metabolização por bactérias. Cerca de 4,0 por cento dos compostos ingeridos pelo grupo Erva Mate e 3,3 por cento pelo grupo Padrão (mol/mol) estavam presentes na urina na forma de ácidos clorogênicos e dos metabólitos avaliados, 8 hs após a gavagem. Conclusão: A absorção e metabolização dos ácidos clorogênicos começa no estômago. Houve diferenças no tipo e quantidade dos diferentes compostos formados a partir dos fenólicos do chá mate e do 5-CQA puro, demonstrando que o perfil de ácidos clorogênicos presentes no alimento influencia qualitativamente e quantitativamente os metabólitos formados. Maior ênfase deve ser dada aos metabólitos em estudos que avaliem as propriedades biológicas e mecanismos de ação dos compostos fenólicos da erva mate e outros alimentos fonte / Introduction: Evaluation of biological properties of bioactive compounds and nutrients, aiming to explain the relationship between food consumption and decreased risk of diseases, is a field of study directly related to public health. Yerba maté (Ilex paraguariensis) is a plant rich in phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acids) which are extensively metabolized after ingestion. Detailed knowledge about the metabolites, its concentrations and target tissues is fundamental to clarify the action mechanisms involved in disease prevention. Objective: Evaluating the biotransformation of Yerba maté phenolic acids in vivo in Wistar rats. Methods: Animals were euthanized 90 min (pilot study) or 30, 60, 120, 240 and 480 (main study) after administration of maté tea or 5-caffeoylquinic acid (standard) by gavage. Control group received saline solution. In the pilot study plasma, liver, kidneys, muscle, stomach and small intestine were analyzed for identification of phenolic compounds and the dose of 2 g maté tea/kg body weight was defined for the main study, which corresponds to 240 mg of total phenolic compounds/kg bw, dose administered to the Standard group as 5-CQA. Quantification was performed in plasma, liver, stomach, large intestine and urine in the main study. Analyses were performed using UPLC/DAD-MS, after development and validation of methodologies for extraction of phenolic acids from fluids and tissues. Maté tea phenolic compounds amount and profile were evaluated by UPLC/DAD-MS. Results: Developed methodologies showed good levels of recovery and precision. Limits of quantification (LQ) and detection (LD) were calculated for each biological matrix. In the pilot study, chlorogenic acids and their phase I and II metabolites were detected in all biological matrices. In the main study, the main compounds in gastric large and intestinal tissues were intact chologenic acids, whereas in plasma, liver and urine their metabolites were present in larger quantities, specially caffeic acid, bound to glucuronic acid and/or sulfate groups, and 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid in the free form on Yerba Mate group, and 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid and feruloylquinic acid on the group that received 5-CQA. It was demonstrated that chlorogenic acids absorption and metabolism begins in stomach, but most of the absorption takes place in the large intestine, especially after microbial metabolization. Approximately 4,0 per cent of compounds ingested by Yerba Mate group and 3,3 per cent by Standard group (mol/mol) were recovered in urine collected up to 8 hs after the gavage, in the form of chlorogenic acids and the evaluated metabolites. Conclusion: The absorption and metabolization of chlorogenic acids begins in the stomach. There were differences in the amount and type of compounds formed from maté tea or pure 5-CQA, showing that the profile of chlorogenic acids on food products may influences qualitatively and quantitatively the metabolites formed on the body. Greater emphasis should be given to metabolites in studies that assess biological properties and mechanisms of action of phenolic compounds from yerba mate and other food source

The evolutionary forces that led to the unprecedented expansion of the human brain and the extreme cognitive prowess possessed by humans have always attracted a great deal of attention from the scientific community. Presented here is a novel theoretical perspective, where the driving force on human brain evolution was the need for enhanced ability to infer social values of conspecifics in the face of degradation and loss of chemosensory signalling mechanisms necessary for social communication present in most mammals. The lack of chemosensory communication of biologically relevant information between humans in the face of the need to make adaptive and accurate social evaluations, led to an exaption of mammalian chemosensory brain regions for the more complex task of inferring social values from behavioural cues that are variable, ambiguous, or otherwise difficult to detect and interpret. This change in social processing from perceptual evaluation to inferential computation placed a premium on cognitive capacity, thus selecting for larger more powerful brains. These selective processes would have left an indelible mark on the human brain, where the human homologues of regions involved in mammalian conspecific chemical communication, in particular the target regions of this study the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC), should be involved in the processing of biologically relevant information and social inference. Several experiments were conducted to examine the role of these brain regions in social inferential processing using the lesion deficit method. First, given that conspecific chemical communication is particularly relevant for biologically imperative evaluation for the purposes of reproduction, VMPC and amygdala damage may result in abnormal mate-related decisions. Second, normal social attributions exhibit the correspondence bias, however damage to the target regions may result in an abnormal lack correspondence bias. Third, the current hypothesis is contrasted with another leading hypothesis, the Social Brain Hypothesis whose proponents predict a relationship between group-size and social cognition. Finally, if the target brain regions are truly integral in inferring social information, then damage to these regions will interfere with the ability to utilize transitive inference in social situations, and potentially in using transitive inference in general. Damage to the target areas produces limited effects on mate-related decisions and preferences. However, the current hypothesis may suggest that the target brain regions are only involved when the problem is inferential in nature rather than simpler perception of social information. In support of this notion, damage to the target regions results in a lack of the correspondence bias when making economic decisions. This alteration in social attributions actually leads to more `rational' decision-making in this context. In contrast to the predictions of the Social Brain Hypothesis, damage to the target regions produces no observed reduction in social group size, nor is there any observed relationship between perspective-taking ability and group size. Finally, damage to the VMPC produces deficits in using transitive inference in a non-social context perhaps hinting at the underlying computations of this region in inferring social information. In conclusion, it appears that the notion that the human brain regions that have been exapted from their duties in chemosensation and communication in mammalian brains has at least some validity. Moreover, these brain regions have been shifted by evolution to a more computationally complex process of social inference possibly providing the push toward larger and more powerful human brains.

This exploratory study is a description of the older dater and his/her attitudes and perceptions about dating, a comparison within the same cohort of youthful and late-life dating and mate selection, and a description of the patterns of dating in the elder years. It is a non-random collection of interviews with 38 single men and women over the age of 59 in two counties in Utah. Older daters were found to have been married for much of their lives previous to dating. They perceived themselves to be in good health and financial condition and were fairly well-educated. They lived independently and had available and supportive family and friend relationships. They had good concepts of themselves and their ability to attract dating partners. Little resistance was perceived from significant others or the general public to their dating. Older people were not found to be more conservative in choosing mates than they were when they were young except in valuing romantic love, sexual attraction and interest in sex less now than during their youth. They also accepted divorce in potential partners and height differences more now than when they were young. They were less accepting now of poor financial conditions. The primary motive for dating and for remarriage in late life was to find companionship. Monogamous dating relationships were the norm. The primary functions of dating were friendship and sharing confidences. Dating partners were met most often through mutual acquaintances or during previous marriages. Dating format and activities for the elderly were similar to those of youthful daters, except at a slower pace.

The ability to understand the complex mechanisms by which species communicate has been the focus of study for many years. The Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) breeds in vocally challenging Antarctic colonies and has evolved a complex system of intra- and intersexual visual and vocal behaviours. Unique to the Adélie penguin, is the presence of two distinct display calls, the Loud Mutual Display (LMD) call and male Ecstatic Display Call (EDC). The EDC is used for both mate choice and territory defence; but apart from general structure and function this call remains basically unstudied. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the EDC with regard to its function (during mate choice) and variability over time, with location and with changing conditions. It is predicted that the EDC will be an individual call that is distinct from the LMD call. Additionally, the effects of an inclement breeding season on factors that affect breeding success will be examined using a logistic regression approach. The study took place over two breeding seasons(2000/1 & 2002/3) on Ross Island, Antarctica, with the majority of research being conducted at Cape Bird. Results of the study indicate that the EDC is an individual call that cannot reliably be described as a male display as females also give an EDC that is acoustically comparable. The similarities between the EDC and the LMD call seem to relate only to syllabic organisation (structure), as almost every call parameter was different between call types. Furthermore, several call parameters differed between Ross Island colonies. These parameters varied with both geographical location and colony size. In conjunction with variation in call parameters, the health and breeding success of the colonies was different. The stability of call parameters (from Cape Bird) indicated that parameters that separate colonies not only alter between breeding years, but also vary during a single breeding season. The function of the EDC as an honest signal during mate choice was supported by spectral analyses. These analyses found heavier males had significantly lower Frequency Modulation (FM) in the short repeated syllables of their calls than lighter males. Furthermore, a male’s breeding success could be predicted during the early breeding season by the FM. Logistic regression models showed that early male arrival, weight and good nest quality were most influential in predicting fledging success. The logistic regression method also showed that the parameters measured varied in their predictive ability as the season progressed. This study has not only enhanced the wealth of knowledge regarding Adélie breeding behaviour and developed our understanding of the vocal repertoire of this species, but also has implications for honest signalling theory, and the evolution and stability of vocal variation at different spatial and temporal scales.

<p>This thesis focuses on reproduction in a simultaneous hermaphrodite with internal fertilization; the nudibranch <i>Aeolidiella glauca</i>. Unlike most other nudibranchs, where copulation is the rule, <i>A</i>. <i>glauca</i> was found to transfer sperm via external spermatophores that were attached to the partner's back. Despite elaborate courtship the actual spermatophore transfer, which always involved two animals only, was of short duration. In most matings (88%) spermatophores were reciprocally exchanged. </p><p><i>A. glauca</i> was further found to be very promiscuous. During mating and sperm transfer the receiver exerts considerable control over sperm, and manipulative behaviours designed to increase the donor's reproductive success are thus likely to have evolved. An example of such manipulative behaviour may be <i>A. glauca's</i><b> </b>unique spermatophore avoidance behaviour. I found that slugs carrying a sign of previous mating activity, i.e. a spermatophore, were discriminated against in a situation where mate choice was possible. The presence of spermatophores was further found to reduce slugs' ability to interrupt matings, and displace other slugs. Body size, however, had no direct effect on displacement in <i>A. glauca</i> as small slugs interrupted matings as successfully as large ones. Furthermore, pair formation and mating were found to be random with respect to size. This was true also for pairs formed in the field. </p><p>In addition to mate choice hermaphrodites may increase their reproductive success by differential sex allocation. I tested whether differing mate encounter rates had any effects on allocation to male and female function in <i>A. glauca</i>. Slugs with more mating opportunities mated more, and had higher proportional spermatophore production that others. As predicted they also laid significantly fewer eggs than slugs presented with partners less often.</p>

<p>A central goal of evolutionary biology is to understand the processes responsible for morphological, genetic and behavioural differentiation between sexes and among geographically distinct populations. Perhaps the most significant processes are genetic drift, natural selection, phenotypic plasticity and sexual selection. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate differentiation among individuals and populations of the sex-role reversed pipefish (<i>Syngnathus typhle</i>) and, consequently, determine which processes may be responsible for emerging patterns. This unique species is characterised by males predominately choosing amongst displaying females.</p><p>In this thesis I revealed, on a microgeographic scale, morphological differentiation without genetic divergence among populations. Interestingly, females differed in size whereas the males did not. For females in this sex-role reversed species, the costs of expressing a plastic phenotype may be outweighed by the potential gains from greater survivorship, higher fecundity or increased mating success. Thus, females gain the ability to make themselves as conspicuous and attractive to males as possible in the specific environment they are living. Moreover, behavioural experiments, which focussed on describing “personalities”, reproductive investment strategies, and mate-sampling tactics, also indicated that males as well as females had the behavioural plasticity required to adjust to the environment in which they live. To this end, using video playbacks as experimental stimuli may be especially rewarding in this species.</p><p>Overall, the studies in this thesis acknowledge the ability of species to fine-tune their phenotype to maximise fitness and, therefore, highlight the importance of considering patterns of differentiation in an environment-specific context. </p>

The ability to understand the complex mechanisms by which species communicate has been the focus of study for many years. The Ad��lie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) breeds in vocally challenging Antarctic colonies and has evolved a complex system of intra- and intersexual visual and vocal behaviours. Unique to the Ad��lie penguin, is the presence of two distinct display calls, the Loud Mutual Display (LMD) call and male Ecstatic Display Call (EDC). The EDC is used for both mate choice and territory defence; but apart from general structure and function this call remains basically unstudied. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the EDC with regard to its function (during mate choice) and variability over time, with location and with changing conditions. It is predicted that the EDC will be an individual call that is distinct from the LMD call. Additionally, the effects of an inclement breeding season on factors that affect breeding success will be examined using a logistic regression approach. The study took place over two breeding seasons(2000/1 & 2002/3) on Ross Island, Antarctica, with the majority of research being conducted at Cape Bird. Results of the study indicate that the EDC is an individual call that cannot reliably be described as a male display as females also give an EDC that is acoustically comparable. The similarities between the EDC and the LMD call seem to relate only to syllabic organisation (structure), as almost every call parameter was different between call types. Furthermore, several call parameters differed between Ross Island colonies. These parameters varied with both geographical location and colony size. In conjunction with variation in call parameters, the health and breeding success of the colonies was different. The stability of call parameters (from Cape Bird) indicated that parameters that separate colonies not only alter between breeding years, but also vary during a single breeding season. The function of the EDC as an honest signal during mate choice was supported by spectral analyses. These analyses found heavier males had significantly lower Frequency Modulation (FM) in the short repeated syllables of their calls than lighter males. Furthermore, a male���s breeding success could be predicted during the early breeding season by the FM. Logistic regression models showed that early male arrival, weight and good nest quality were most influential in predicting fledging success. The logistic regression method also showed that the parameters measured varied in their predictive ability as the season progressed. This study has not only enhanced the wealth of knowledge regarding Ad��lie breeding behaviour and developed our understanding of the vocal repertoire of this species, but also has implications for honest signalling theory, and the evolution and stability of vocal variation at different spatial and temporal scales.

Thesis (M.A.)--State University of New York at New Paltz, 2007. / Also issued in electronic version. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 29-31). Online version available via the SUNY New Paltz Sojourner Truth Library : http://hdl.handle.net/1951/39633

Vocal communication allows animals to express distress, territoriality, and most important, to attract mates. In the African Clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, vocal communication is unique, because not only do males advertise for mates using elaborate click vocalizations, but also females are able to advertise their reproductive readiness by eliciting a "rapping" call. Sex differences in vocal repertoire match sex differences in vocal circuitry. During development, the vocal circuitry in the male grows increasingly sensitive to circulating androgens. Androgens induce tremendous growth in the cartilage and musculature of the peripheral vocal organ, the larynx. Net addition of synapses and motor fibers soon follow providing communication from the motor nucleus in the hindbrain to the vocal organ. The laryngeal motor nucleus, n. IX-X, accumulates androgens that serve to protect n. IX-X neurons from programmed apoptosis. Females, who have low levels of circulating androgens, experience a profound net loss on n. IX-X neurons during this developmental critical period. Once the frogs reach sexual maturity males possess larger and more numerous n. IX-X neurons than females, as well as sizable sex differences in laryngeal robustness and physiology. These measurable sex differences yield vastly different vocal programs. Androgens continue to maintain a critical role in governing breeding season trophic effects and mediating call production. Because male X. laevis are so susceptible to the effects of androgens, they may also be sensitive to the actions of endocrine disrupting chemical agents. The vocal system of X. laevis and its androgen sensitivity thus provide an ideal model for studying changes imposed to the anatomy and physiology of the system by the brominated flame retardant, PBDE-209, a putative anti-androgen and common pollutant. The present studies investigate how PBDE-209 affects the male vocal system when animals are exposed during the androgen-sensitive critical period of vocal system development and during adulthood when the tissues are utilizing androgens to vocalize. PBDE-209 effectively reduces male n. IX-X number and size at higher concentrations after exposure during the organizational critical period. Similar dose-dependent effects were observed in adult n. IX-X neurons. Moreover, PBDE-209 inhibited male-typical vocalization by reducing the number of calls elicited as well as the average call amplitude. These data strongly suggest that PBDE-209 has cytotoxic effects that alter n. IX-X anatomy and function, and may be mediated through pathways that include blocking the androgens necessary for proper vocal system development.