Describe actual problems of metrology and system of food safety, official control and work of metrology laboratories.

La nécessité de la montée en puissance, crête et moyenne, des chaines lasers hyper intenses a fait émerger un nouveau type d'architecture. Le principe consiste à combiner de manière cohérente un grand nombre de lasers élémentaires les plus simples et robustes possible. La difficulté de la montée en puissance est donc reportée essentiellement sur le système de recombinaison. Plusieurs laboratoires à travers le monde ont ainsi décidé de s'impliquer dans cette voie. S'il existe des concepts variés pour la boucle d'asservissement, il n'y a pas pour l'instant, à notre connaissance, de développement d'un moyen de métrologie absolue de la qualité du front d'onde final, et donc de la recombinaison. Or celui-ci est fondamental pour deux moments particuliers de la conception de ces nouvelles architectures.Dans un premier temps, il est nécessaire de connaître la nature, l'amplitude et la fréquence des défauts de phase en boucle ouverte afin de bien spécifier l'architecture de la tête optique et le système de contrôle/commande. Puis, lorsque la chaîne est pleinement opérationnelle, en boucle fermée, la qualité de la recombinaison doit être évaluée. L'objet de cette thèse est de proposer un nouvel interféromètre adapté à ces deux besoins, c'est-à-dire capable d'encaisser de fortes dynamiques et d'avoir en même temps des capacités de mesure absolue de très grandes précision et justesse, à haute cadence, afin de mesurer et d'analyser le front d'onde résultant de la combinaison des différents lasers sur toute la phase de conception de ces lasers, en boucle ouverte comme en boucle fermée. / The need for the rise in power, peak and medium, of hyper intense laser chains has led to the emergence of a new type of architecture. The principle is to consistently combine a large number of the simplest and most robust elementary lasers possible. The difficulty of ramping up is therefore mainly transferred to the recombination system. Several laboratories around the world have thus decided to get involved in this path. If there are various concepts for the servo loop, there is currently, to our knowledge, no development of a means of absolute metrology of the quality of the final wavefront, and therefore of recombination. This is fundamental for two particular moments in the design of these new architectures.First, it is necessary to know the nature, amplitude and frequency of open loop phase faults in order to properly specify the optical head architecture and the control/command system. Then, when the chain is fully operational, in closed loop, the quality of the recombination must be evaluated. The purpose of this thesis is to propose a new interferometer adapted to these two needs, i.e. capable of withstanding strong dynamics and at the same time having absolute measurement capabilities of very high precision and accuracy, at high cadence, in order to measure and analyze the wavefront resulting from the combination of the different lasers over the entire design phase of these lasers, in open loop as in closed loop.

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Le futur Système International d'unités, fondé sur des constantes fondamentales, va permettre de profiter pleinement des étalons quantiques de résistance, de courant et de tension qui sont reliés à la constante de planck et à la charge élémentaire. Dans cette thèse, nous avons développé et étudié un étalon de résistance fondé sur l'effet Hall quantique (EHQ) dans du graphène obtenu par dépôt chimique en phase vapeur (propane/hydrogène) sur substrat de carbure de silicium. Nous avons réussi à montrer, pour la première fois, qu'un étalon de résistance en graphène pouvait fonctionner à des conditions expérimentales plus pratiques que son homologue en GaAs/AlGaAs, c'est-à-dire à des températures plus élevées (T⋍10 K), des champs magnétiques plus faibles (B ⋍ 3,5 T) et des courants de mesures plus importants (I⋍500 μA). Dans une optique de compréhension et d'amélioration, nous avons analysé la reproductibilité du processus de fabrication de barres de Hall, testé une méthode de modification de la densité électronique et étudié les mécanismes de dissipation en régime d'EHQ.Dans une seconde partie, nous avons démontré qu'il était possible de réaliser une source de courant quantique programmable et versatile, directement reliée à la charge élémentaire, en combinant les deux étalons quantiques de tension et de résistance dans un circuit quantique intégrant un comparateur cryogénique de courant. Des courants ont ainsi pu être générés dans une gamme allant de 1 μA jusqu'à 5 mA avec une incertitude relative jamais atteinte de 10⁻⁸. Nous avons également prouvé que cet étalon de courant, réalisant la nouvelle définition de l'ampère, pouvait être utilisé pour étalonner un ampèremètre. / The future International System of Units, based on fundamental constants, will allow to take full advantage of the quantum standards of resistance, current and voltage that are linked to the planck constant and the elementary charge only.In this thesis, we have developed and studied a resistance standard based on the quantum Hall effect in graphene obtained by chemical vapor deposition (propane/hydrogen) on silicon carbide substrate. For the first time we were able to show that a graphene resistance standard could operate at more practical experimental conditions than its counterpart in GaAs/AlGaAs, ie at higher temperatures (T⋍10 K), weaker magnetics fields (B ⋍ 3,5 T) and larger measurement currents (I⋍500 μA). From an understanding and improvement perspective, we have analyzed the fabrication process of the Hall bar and its reproducibility, tested a method to modify the electronic density, and investigated the quantum Hall effect dissipation mechanisms.In a second part, we have demonstrated that it was possible torealize a programmable and versatile quantum current source from the elementary charge, by combining the two quantum standards of voltage and resistance in a quantum circuit integrating a cryogenic current comparator. Currents were generated in the range from 1 μA to 5 mA, with a relative uncertainty never achieved before of 10⁻⁸. We have also showed that this current standard, realizing the new definition of the ampere, could be used to calibrate an ammeter.

Photons are robust carriers of quantum information as they can propagate long distances without losing quantum entanglement and coherence. Compared to quantum information in matter-based carriers, such as superconducting oscillators, trapped ions and atoms, quantum dots, and vacancy centers in crystals, the photonic quantum states are robust against perturbations from the environment, such as parasitic electromagnetic fields and thermal fluctuations (phonons), making it an ideal candidate for room-temperature-based quantum metrology and information processing applications. Such robustness is due to photon-photon scattering in the vacuum being extremely improbable and photon-atom interactions being in the linear regime for most materials. Nevertheless, photon-photon or photon-atom nonlinear interactions are also critical for all quantum photonic applications as nonlinearity is required for generating non-classical states of light. Furthermore, nonlinear interactions greatly expand the variety of Hamiltonian that can be engineered for a given system or subsystem, which is a direct measure of the system's functionality. Thus, the ability to engineer nonlinear interactions has been one of the primary research focuses in quantum photonics. This thesis presents research on using nonlinear photonic chips to harness the unique properties offered by quantum mechanics, with applications in precision metrology and information procession. Atoms possess a rich set of quantum properties that have no counterparts in the classical world. Even in warm vapor form, atomic gases maintain sufficient coherence for tasks, including time keeping, electric field sensing and quantum memories. We develop chip-based light sources that can interact with narrow-band atomic transitions in order to miniaturize these applications. Typical Alkali atoms have transition around the visible light regime, where photonic materials exhibit strong normal group-velocity dispersion (GVD) which inhibits light generation via nonlinear interactions. We offer a systematic solution by re-examining the dispersion engineer techniques, which revealed that higher-order waveguide modes can have stronger anomalous GVD. With this technique, we demonstrate on-chip mode-locked pulses (Kerr combs) at a record-low wavelength, which can be used for high-precision atomic clocks. We also develop chip-based narrow-band high-brightness photon sources at the visible regime using nonlinear interactions. Such photons can interact with atom-based quantum memories and gates, which can find applications in both quantum communication and computation. Squeezed state is also an important class of non-classical states with key applications in quantum metrology, quantum simulation, and continuous-variable quantum information processing. Typically, squeezed states are generated using χ² processes, which are not readily available on most photonic platforms. For the first time, we demonstrate squeezed state generation using a dual-pumped four-wave-mixing process, which we implement on a silicon-nitride chip. To perform quantum simulation or computation with squeezed states, we need programmable interferometer arrays and photon-number resolving (PNR) detectors. Current PNR detectors rely on superconducting effects which require Kelvin level temperatures. We propose a room-temperature PNR scheme based on optical nonlinearity. We show that using cascaded χ² interactions, a single photon can impart an observable phase on a probe beam, which can be implemented within the current fabrication capabilities. Our squeezed-state-generation and PNR-detection devices lay a practical path towards room-temperature quantum simulation and computing.

Ces travaux de recherche sont réalisés dans le cadre d'une thèse CIFRE en collaboration entre Safran Aircraft Engines et le LURPA de l'ENS Paris-Saclay. Safran Aircraft Engines conçoit et réalise des moteurs pour avions civils et militaires. Afin de répondre au fort développement industriel mondial, Safran Aircraft Engines est constamment en recherche d'optimisation des définitions de ses pièces tout en respectant les cadences de fabrication. Les normes de tolérancement évoluent et les moyens de contrôle s'améliorent. La problématique des travaux est de maîtriser la qualité géométrique des pièces de formes complexes dans le contexte de la continuité numérique.Une méthode permet d'établir les liens entre les fonctions et les spécifications géométriques. De plus, la traçabilité des caractéristiques dimensionnelles et géométriques est établie lors de la phase de tolérancement du produit.Une extension de la méthode CLIC à des composants qui se déforme localement est proposée. Cette extension s'intègre dans la méthode de tolérancement qui établit les liens entre les fonctions et les spécifications.Une méthode originale de génération de descripteurs de forme sur des surfaces permettant la séparation des écarts de taille, de forme, de position et d'orientation est présentée afin de réaliser une Décomposition Modale Discrète. De plus, l'analyse des résultats de la Décomposition Modale Discrète appliquée sur trente surfaces complexes permet de connaître la répétabilité du processus de fabrication. / This PhD work is being carried out as part of a CIFRE PhD thesis in collaboration between Safran Aircraft Engines and the LURPA of the ENS Paris-Saclay. Safran Aircraft Engines designs and manufactures engines for civil and military aircraft. In order to meet the high level of global industrial development, Safran Aircraft Engines is constantly seeking to optimize the definitions of its parts while respecting production rate. Tolerancing standards are changing and control methods are improving. The challenge of this work is to control the geometric quality of complex shaped parts in the context of digital continuity.A method is used to establish the links between functions and geometric specifications. In addition, the traceability of dimensional and geometric characteristics is established during the product tolerancing phase.An extension of the CLIC method to components that deform locally is proposed. This extension is integrated into the tolerance method used to establish the links between functions and specifications.An innovative method of generating shape descriptors on surfaces allowing the separation of size, of shape, of position, and of orientation deviations is described in order to achieve a Discrete Modal Decomposition. In addition, the analysis of the results of the Discrete Modal Decomposition applied to thirty complex surfaces allows us to know the repeatability of the manufacturing process.

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Yes / This paper introduces a special issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science that considers the current state and future directions in lithic microwear analysis. There is considerable potential for lithic microwear analysis to reconstruct past human behaviour as it can provide direct insight into past activities. Consequently, it is a technique worthy of significant additional investment and continued development. To further the cause of methodological maturation within microwear analysis and to promote standardization, calibration, and innovation, the following collection of papers present various approaches and perspectives on how greater methodological refinement and increased reliability of results can and should be achieved. Many of these papers were part of a session held at the 2011 Society for American Archaeology Meeting (SAA) in Sacramento, California, while others were selected from the 2012 International Conference on Use-Wear Analysis in Faro, Portugal. The purpose of the SAA session and this special themed issue is essentially two-fold. The first is to promote awareness of the need for methodological standardization, calibration, and continuing innovation. The second is to open a serious dialogue about how these aims could be pursued and achieved. / AAE was supported by the AHRC (AH/J007935/1). HJL was supported by L’Équipe Archéometrie at the Laboratoires d’ Archéologie, a part of the Centre Interuniversitaire d’Études sur les Lettres, les Arts et les Traditions (CELAT) at Université Laval. DAM was supported by Fondation Fyssen and the University of Toronto. WJS was supported by Faculty Development Grant from Keene State College.

MScEng / Thesis (MScEng (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Accurate dimensional measurement devices are critical for international industrial competitiveness for South Africa. An overview of all the necessary components of a laser tracking system using a multilateration technique for very accurate dimensional metrology is presented. A prototype laser tracker station was built to further investigate this type of system. The prototype successfully tracks a target within a volume of at least 200 200 200 mm3, approximately 300 mm away from the tracker. This system includes the mechanical design of a prototype tracker station, electronic implementation of ampli cation and motor control circuits, a tracking control algorithm, microcontroller programming and interfacing, as well as a user interface. Kinematic modelling along with Monte Carlo analyses nd the main error source of such a tracker as the beam steering mechanism gimbal axes misalignment. Multilateration is also motivated by the results found by the analysis. Furthermore, an initial sequential multilateration algorithm is developed and tested. The results of these tests are promising and motivate the use of multilateration over a single beam laser tracking system. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is van kritieke belang dat Suid-Afrika akkurate dimensionele metingstoestelle ontwikkel vir internasionale industriële medinging. 'n Oorsig van al die nodige komponente vir 'n Laser-Volgsisteem, wat slegs van multilaterasie gebruik maak om baie akkurate drie dimensionele metings te kan neem, word in hierdie projek voorgestel. 'n Prototipe Laser-Volgsisteem-stasie word gebou om so 'n sisteem verder te ondersoek. Die prototipe slaag wel daarin om 'n teiken, binne 'n volume van 200 200 200 mm3 op 'n afstand van omtrent 300 mm te volg. Die sisteem sluit die meganiese ontwerp van die sodanige stasie, elektroniese seinversterking, motorbeheer, 'n volgingsbeheer algoritme, mikroverwerker programeering en intergrasie, asook 'n gebruikerskoppelvlak program in. Kinematiese modelering, tesame met Monte Carlo simulasies, toon aan dat die hoof oorsaak van metingsfoute by so 'n stasie by die rotasie-asse van die laserstraal-stuurmeganisme, wat nie haaks is nie, lê. Die multilaterasie metode word ook verder ondersteun deur dié modelering. 'n Algoritme wat sekwensiële multilateratsie toepas word boonop ontwikkel en getoets. Die resultate van die toetse dui daarop dat die algoritme funksioneer en dat daar voordele daarin kan wees om so 'n metode in plaas van 'n Enkelstraal-Volgsisteem te gebruik.