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Dominance rank often determines the share of reproduction an individual male can secure in group-living animals (i.e. dominance rank-based reproductive skew). However, our knowledge of the interplay between individual and social factors in determining rank trajectories of males is still limited. The overall aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate mechanisms that underlie individual dominance rank trajectories in male crested macaques (Macaca nigra) and to highlight potential individual and social determinants of how males can achieve and maintain the highest rank possible. Data for this thesis were collected on 37 males during a field study on a natural population of crested macaques living in the Tangkoko-Batuangus Nature Reserve in Indonesia. In study 1, I validate Elo-rating as a particularly well suited method to quantify dominance hierarchies in animal species with dynamic dominance relationships. In studies 2 and 3, I suggest a personality structure for crested macaque males consisting of five distinct factors and further demonstrate that two personality factors determine whether males will rise or fall in rank. Finally, in study 4, I present results on how males utilize coalitions to increase their future rank. Together, these results shed light on how individual attributes and social environment both can impact male careers. Ultimately, in order to understand what determines rank-based reproductive skew, we need to consider the complexity and likely diversity of the mechanisms underlying rank trajectories of individual males which are likely to differ across different species.

Dominance rank often determines the share of reproduction an individual male can secure in group-living animals (i.e. dominance rank-based reproductive skew). However, our knowledge of the interplay between individual and social factors in determining rank trajectories of males is still limited. The overall aim of this thesis was therefore to investigate mechanisms that underlie individual dominance rank trajectories in male crested macaques (Macaca nigra) and to highlight potential individual and social determinants of how males can achieve and maintain the highest rank possible. Data for this thesis were collected on 37 males during a field study on a natural population of crested macaques living in the Tangkoko-Batuangus Nature Reserve in Indonesia. In study 1, I validate Elo-rating as a particularly well suited method to quantify dominance hierarchies in animal species with dynamic dominance relationships. In studies 2 and 3, I suggest a personality structure for crested macaque males consisting of five distinct factors and further demonstrate that two personality factors determine whether males will rise or fall in rank. Finally, in study 4, I present results on how males utilize coalitions to increase their future rank. Together, these results shed light on how individual attributes and social environment both can impact male careers. Ultimately, in order to understand what determines rank-based reproductive skew, we need to consider the complexity and likely diversity of the mechanisms underlying rank trajectories of individual males which are likely to differ across different species.

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of visitors on six species of captive primates in Shou Shan Zoo. In this article, I compared the behavior and the use of enclosure of primates with or without audiences, and I studied the correlations among the visitors¡¦ behavior, the behavior of primates, and the use of enclosure of them. Data were collected from September 2006 to March 2007 (between 09:00 to 16:00 hrs). The Shou Shan Zoo¡¦s visitors were estimated as 681 (¡Ó 323.71) individuals in non-holidays and 2824 (¡Ó 810.15) individuals in holidays. The average feeding provided by visitors was 3.65 % for 6 primate species, and this was more than four times of the feeding rate in Taipei Zoo. This phenomenon will threat the welfare and health of animals. Although resting was the most frequent behavior of these six species of primates, the proportion of abnormal behavior in Chimpanzee display site where attracted highest number of audiences and the highest proportion of animal feeding performed by visitors was relatively high. The major behavior of captive Chimpanzees were rest (53.28%), abnormal (13.75%) and food-related behavior (12.93%), and the frequency of Chimpanzees used the edge zone beyond 70%. The major behavior of Borneo Orangutan was rest (64.10%), followed by food-related behavior (20.13%) and self-directed behavior (12.18%). The frequency of Borneo Orangutan in the enclosure was highest in the back zone. The major behavior of Hamadryas Baboons was rest (49.27%), followed by affiliative (21.10%) and food-related behavior (12.68%). The frequency of Hamadryas Baboon in the enclosure was 50.27% in the other and 47.35% in the back zone. The major behavior of Celebes was rest (55.12%), followed by affiliative behavior (13.10%) and active (12.91%). The frequency of Celebes in the enclosure was highest in the back zone (41.51%), followed by the enrich (31.50%) and the edge zone (23.50%). The major behavior of the Dark-handed gibbon was rest (54.40%), active (27.10%) and food-related behavior (12.17%), and the frequency of the Dark-handed gibbon in the enclosure was 54.40% in the enrich zoon, 27.00% in the edge zoon and 10.90% in the other zoon. The major behavior of the White-handed gibbon was rest (74.28%) and active (18.07%), and the frequency of it in the enclosure was 45.58% in the enrich zoon and 39.52% in the edge zoon. The frequency of the Chimpanzees¡¦ abnormal, undesirable and self-directed behavior were influenced by audiences, and the duration of abnormal and undesirable behavior were positively correlated with the visitors¡¦ active and feeding behavior, but that were negatively correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (ignore and look). The duration of the Borneo Orangutan¡¦s rest, active, food-related and self-directed behavior were influenced by audiences, and the duration of the Borneo Orangutan used the back and the enrich zone were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active and look). The Hamadryas Baboon¡¦s rest (time) and undesirable behavior (frequency) were influenced by audiences, and the duration of rest, food-related and undesirable behavior were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active, look, feeding and ignore), and the duration of the Hamadryas Baboon used the edge and the back zone were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (look and feeding). The frequency of the Celebes¡¦ self-directed and agonistic behavior were influenced by audiences, and the duration of active, self-directed, food-related and affiliative behavior were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ feeding behavior. The duration of the Dark-handed gibbons¡¦ active and food-related behavior and the frequency of the Dark-handed gibbons¡¦ agonistic behavior were influenced by audiences, and the duration of rest, active, food-related, self-directed, undesirable and agonistic behavior were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active, look, feeding and ignore). The duration of Dark-handed gibbons used the edge, the back and the enrich zoon were influenced by audiences, and the duration of the Dark-handed gibbons used these three zones were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active, feeding and ignore). The frequency of the White-handed gibbon¡¦s self-directed behavior was influenced by audiences, and the duration of active, food-related, undesirable and abnormal behavior were significantly correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active, look, feeding and ignore). The duration of the White-handed gibbon used the other zoon was positively correlated with the visitors¡¦ behavior (active).