Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Carolina Wilmington, 2008. / Title from PDF title page (October 20, 2008) Includes bibliographical references (p. 40-47)

With the growth in human pressures on the marine environment and the increase in competition for space and resources there has been recognition by many governments of the need to use the marine environment sustainably and allow for its acceptable allocation for each sector. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the use of Marxan and Marxan with Zones as practical tools to enable the production of marine plans that integrate environmental and socioeconomic data and to suggest best practice in the types of data used. In this thesis three key aspects of data type and integration were identified and evaluated. The resolution and complexity of data required to protected marine biodiversity was assessed. The effects of using different substrate data resolution on the selection of sites to protect a range of biotopes using Marxan are determined. The nature of the data used in marine planning has significant implications for the protection of marine biodiversity. Using less complex data, of any resolution, did not adequately protect marine biodiversity. There is a need to determine what is an acceptable allocation of marine resource to each sector. Two case study areas were used to determine how to integrate conservation and socioeconomic data and objectives in a marine plan. Objectives for all the sectors could not be met completely in a single marine plan and each sector had to compromise. This research highlighted the potential compromises required and indicates that if marine heritage and biodiversity are to be protected each sector will have to change the impact it has on the marine environment. Currently marine conservation assumes that all data on habitats and species presented for use in marine planning are equal, in accuracy, precision and value. This is not always the case, with data based on a wide range of sources including routine government monitoring, specific innovative research and stakeholder based data gathering. A case study area was used to evaluate the impacts of using confidence levels in habitat data on marine biodiversity. It was found that data outputs that best protected marine biodiversity used data over 20% and over 30% confidence. With the data currently available for the UK marine environment it is not possible to be confident that a representative MPA network can be created. Together these studies contribute key recommendations for best practice in marine planning and demonstrate that the use of spatial decision support tools (Marxan and Marxan with Zones) are essential for the integration of data in marine planning, to assess how using different types of data will impact marine planning and marine biodiversity protection and to explore implications of different management actions.

This thesis addresses time-series analyses of microbial (i.e. marine heterotrophic bacteria and phytoplankton) and microbially relevant ecosystem variables at two ocean time series stations - Palmer Station in the coastal Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) and the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) site in the Sargasso Sea. Using a diverse spectrum of statistical analyses and models, the aim of this thesis is to gain the better insight into 1) variability of microbial and ecosystem processes across varying time scales, from seasonal to interdecadal, and 2) how each process is influenced by variability of surrounding local physical forcing factors as well as regional and global-scale climate variability along the study region. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the two study sites as well as a brief history of the ocean time-series programs there. Chapter 2 deals with phytoplankton and nutrient drawdown variability over an interdecadal (1993-2013) period using seasonal time-series variables collected at Palmer Station during full 6-months of Austral growing seasons (October-March). Specifically, the linkage between large-scale climate modes relevant to the WAP area and phytoplankton and nutrient patterns is explored to establish the underlying mechanisms of the observed ecosystem variability, which is ultimately triggered by climate conditions via mediatory physical forcing factors. Chapter 3 addresses a decadal (2002-2014) variability of heterotrophic bacterial variables collected at Palmer Station in Antarctica. This Chapter 3 provides an insight into why bacterial activity was shown to be restricted in this very productive ecosystem from diverse aspects gained using different statistical approaches. Furthermore, the linkage between bacterial properties and surrounding environmental conditions is explored. Finally, Chapter 4 concerns an event-scale phenomenon - the frequency of winter storms - and its impact on bacterial dynamics and ecological processes at the BATS site. Using a previously developed storm tracking algorithm, this study benefits from establishing a mechanistic connection between storm forcing and bacterial processes via storm-induced variability of physical environments - the extent of wind-mixing and entrainment of cold water into the upper mixed-layer. The finding of Chapter 4 is novel in the aspect that prevalent negative North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) conditions, which lead to frequent arrivals of winter storms over the BATS region, in part, explain a significant decreasing bacterial trend over the past 24-year period. Overall, my thesis, in conjunction with work performed by fellow microbial oceanographers, aims to provide evidence of microbial responses to physical forcings across varying time scales in the strongly coupled climate-biogeochemical systems at two contrasting ocean sites based on a variety of statistical approaches.

I investigated the ecological functions of halogenated secondary metabolites from the red alga Asparagopsis armata, their localisation in specialised cells and also their cost of production. A. armata produces large amounts of halogenated metabolites ( &lt 20 ??g / mg dry weight) that are sequestered in gland cells, as was demonstrated with light, epifluorescence and transmission electron microscopy. Cellular structures were identified that likely assist the release of metabolites from the gland cells to the algal surface. The halogenated metabolites of A. armata have multiple ecological roles, functioning as both inhibitors of bacterial fouling and as herbivore deterrents. Their activity against bacteria and herbivores was measured by a novel test in which the metabolites were manipulated in A. armata by omitting bromide ions from the culture media. This technique prevented the production of halogenated metabolites, but did not impact on other aspects of algal biology. Algae lacking halogenated metabolites (bromide [-] algae) had higher densities of epiphytic bacteria than those that continued to produce metabolites (bromide [+] algae). Bioassays with pure compounds against individual bacterial isolates further supported an inhibitory role for the halogenated metabolites against epiphytic bacteria, and also indicated an affect on bacterial community structure as well as abundance. Bromide (+) A. armata produced halogenated metabolites that also deterred feeding by two herbivores (an amphipod and an abalone), but not a third (an opisthobranch mollusc). A novel outcome from these feeding assays was the demonstration of a relationship between herbivore size and consumption of the chemically defended A. armata by the abalone Haliotis rubra. In addition to the fitness benefits gained from chemical defence, there were also costs for allocating resources to secondary metabolites. These costs were only detected under limiting light resources, consistent with predictions of the plant defence models. The integration of chemical analyses and cellular measures of chemical defence proved essential in elucidating resource allocation to chemical defence in the filamentous stage of A. armata. This thesis highlights that the simple relationships between growth and defence in filamentous algae can provide an excellent model for studies of the ecology and evolution of chemical defences in marine algae.

Assemblages of algae are altered by both bottom - up ( e.g. nutrient availability ) and top - down ( e.g. herbivory ) processes. As a result of the increasing human population in coastal areas, massive changes are forecast to benthic habitats in response to increasing coastal nutrient concentrations and a reduction in consumers. To identify the scales over which nutrients may have an effect, abundance of turf - forming algae growing as epiphytes on kelp ( Ecklonia radiata ) were related to water nutrient concentration across temperate Australia. In general, the percentage cover of epiphytes was greatest at sites with the greatest nutrient concentrations. By experimentally elevating mean nitrate concentration from the low 0.064 ± 0.01 µmol L [superscript - 1 ] to 0.121 ± 0.04 µmol L [superscript - 1 ], which was still only ~ 5 % of that measured on a more eutrophic coast, I was able to increase the percentage cover of epiphytes to match those seen on nutrient rich coasts, despite not matching the nutrient concentrations on those coasts. Hence, it appears that the effects of elevated nutrients will be disproportionately large on relatively oligotrophic coasts. Nutrient concentrations were also experimentally elevated to test whether the presence of an algal canopy or molluscan grazers were able to counter the effects of nutrient enrichment on algal assemblages. The loss of canopy - forming algae is likely to be a key precursor to nutrient driven changes of benthic habitats, because nutrients had no direct effect on algal assemblages in the presence of canopy - forming algae. In the absence of canopy - forming algae, space was quickly monopolised by turf - forming algae, but in the presence of elevated nutrients grazers were able to reduce the monopoly of turf - forming algae in favour of foliose algae. This switch in relative abundance of habitat may reflect greater consumption of nutrient rich turf - forming algae by grazers, possibly creating more space for other algae to colonise. Importantly, greater consumption of turf - forming algae in the presence of elevated nutrients may act as a mechanism to absorb the disproportionate effect of nutrients on oligotrophic coasts. In southern Australia, canopy - forming algae have a negative impact on the abundance of turf - forming algae. To assess the mechanisms by which an algal canopy may suppress turf - forming algae, abrasion by the canopy and water flow were experimentally reduced. Abrasion by the canopy reduced the percentage cover and biomass of turf - forming algae. In contrast to predictions, biomass and percentage cover of turf - forming algae were also reduced when water flow was reduced. Light intensity was substantially reduced when there was less water flow ( because of reduced movement in algal canopy ). However, the reduction in available light ( shading ) did not account for all of the observed reduction in biomass and percentage cover of turf - forming algae, suggesting that other factors are modified by water flow and may contribute to the loss of turf - forming algae. Habitat loss and fragmentation are well known to affect the diversity and abundance of fauna in habitat patches. I used experimental habitats to assess how fragmentation of turf habitats affects the diversity and abundance of two taxa of macroinvertebrates with different dispersal abilities. I established that increased isolation of habitats reduced the species richness and abundance of invertebrates with slow rates of dispersal, while the species richness and abundance of invertebrates with fast rates of dispersal were greatest in habitats that were far apart. In summary, this thesis provides an insight into some of the impacts associated with human populations in coastal areas, namely increased nutrient inputs, loss of grazers ( e.g. harvesting ), and loss of canopy algae and fragmentation of habitats. I show that increased nutrient concentrations in coastal waters can alter the relative abundance of algal species, and that some effects of elevated nutrients can be absorbed by the presence of grazers. I also show that elevated nutrients have no effect on algal assemblage in the presence of canopy - forming algae, and that canopies can suppress the colonisation of turf - forming algae. Finally, I show that the fragmentation of turf habitats affects taxa of invertebrates with different dispersal abilities in different ways. Whilst the contemporary ecology of much of the temperate Australian subtidal coast is considered to be relatively unaffected by human activity, this thesis shows that changes to top - down and bottom - up processes could have large consequences for habitats and their inhabitants. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2005.

The term "interaction" in evolutionary biology and ecology describes the relationships among variables in two classes of causal models. In the first, "interaction" refers to the influence of a single putatively causal variable on a variable of interest. In the second class of models, the term applies when a third variable mediates the relationship between two variables in the first class of models. The development of multi-factor causal models in evolutionary biology and ecology represents a stage in the construction of theory that usually follows from complexities discovered in single-factor analyses. In this thesis, I present three cases that illustrate how results of simple single-factor models in the population genetics and community ecology of seaweeds may be affected by incorporation of a second causal factor. In Chapter II, we consider how the effect of natural selection on genetic variability in seaweeds and other plants may be mediated by life history variation. Many seaweeds have haplodiplontic life histories in which haploid and diploid stages alternate. Our theoretical analysis and review of the electrophoretic literature show that the level of genetic polymorphism in haplodiplonts is not necessarily reduced relative to that in diploids. In Chapter III, I take an experimental approach to understanding how herbivory may mediate the effect of desiccation on the upper intertidal limit of a red alga, Iridaea cornucopiae. Iridaea appears to be grazer-limited in dry, but grazer-dependent in moist environments, suggesting that a third factor may mediate the interaction of desiccation and herbivory. Finally, in Chapter IV, we consider research strategies for studying how the outcome of competitive interactions is affected by seaweed traits. Some of the problems that arise in applying simple models of competition to plants suggest the need for theory that explicitly incorporates plant traits in two- (or more) factor models of interspecific competition. In particular, we note that unique traits of seaweeds require development of new approaches to understanding competition. Single-factor causal models represent an indispensable stage in the development of evolutionary and ecological theory. Properly conceived theoretical and empirical studies focus attention on the assumptions under which such models will hold and suggest lines of inquiry that ultimately lead to the integration of additional causal factors in conceptual models of natural processes. Identifying the circumstances under which simple models will suffice remains one of the most important challenges of evolutionary and ecological scholarship. / Graduation date: 1993

The two sides of Taiwan Strait possess endless coastline and abundant marine resources. However, the governments of all the past dynasties lacked marine awareness, and their policies failed to straddle the coastline which influenced the opportunities for the development of marine activities. The developments of marine policies of all the past dynasties could be divided into four stages: the birth of marine concepts (during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period), the development of marine activities (during the Qin and Han dynasties, the Three Kingdoms Period, and the Six Dynasties Period), the peak of marine activities (during the Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties), and the decline of Marine activities (during the Ming and Qing Dynasties). The activities in each stage had influenced the trends of the marine cultures and the marine literatures. In the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the public and private sectors relied on the thriving marine awareness to develop marine technologies, to exploit the marine resources. It helped the marine activities at this stage prosperous, and developed abundant marine cultures and literatures. Most of the writers at this stage stayed in the coastal regions. They possessed abundant marine experiences, and their diversified literary styles and descriptions on ocean were applied in describing the atmosphere of a sea country, recording sea livelihood, praising marine traditions, and forming strong ocean images. The marine literatures at this stage were characterized by its considerable works in terms of quantity and quality. This paper follows the framework below to discuss the marine literatures in the Song and Yuan Dynasties: marine cultures in China ¡÷ marine literatures ¡÷ marine literatures in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. First, it analyzes the insights and developmental conditions of marine cultures, and discusses the developmental courses of marine activities of all the past dynasties so as to lay the foundation of the chapters on marine literatures. Then, it shifts the focus from marine cultures to marine literatures and investigates the definition and standard for comparing literary works, locating artistic characteristics, and sorting out divisions of development stages. After constructing the overall concepts of marine cultures and marine literatures, it further analyzes the marine literatures in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. It also examines the basic information of marine literatures in these dynasties, and connects it with the analysis on the contents of literary works of various writers. In the main body of the study, the works of important writers in these dynasties are discussed respective, and the emphasis is to present the characteristics of various writers. Then, it reviews the literary works of these two dynasties as a whole to analyze the natural ocean and overall atmosphere of cultural ocean presented by the marine literatures at this stage from a broad viewpoint. Lastly, it analyzes the overall artistic characteristic and the limitations in the form and contents of this work. This paper concludes its finding as followed: the comprehensive knowledge of the marine cultures can supplement the developmental insights of ancient maritime technology, construct the developments of classical marine literatures, propose the standard for identifying marine literatures, demonstrate the meanings of important works of marine literatures in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and reveal the insights of natural ocean and cultural ocean.

The fast coastal development has caused serious marine pollution with powerless policy and inappropriate management scheme, especially in dealing with the marine debris. The marine debris has been the major coastal problems over the year because of human related activities and nature disasters frequently occurring during the monsoon season or typhoon period each year around the coastal Taiwan. These make the marine debris issues to become the top priority for the government of Taiwan in dealing the marine pollution especially after the 8th of August, 2009. The present study is initiated to assess the current data information, policy, and regulation of Taiwan¡¦s coastal area debris management. This study uses comparative analysis, integrations of internal and external monitoring and management of marine debris-related researches. This thesis reports that Taiwan administration must undertake all three aspects of integration, monitoring and management to effectively managing the marine debris. As the aspect of integration, because marine debris come from land-based emissions, ocean currents carry and sea-based activities, the government needs to consolidate the entire river, rain water drainage systems, ports, ships and fishing areas, to establish an inter-ministerial and responsible agency, to truly develop and implement the bill of marine debris management. As the aspect of monitoring, the central and local government as well as civil society must do their best together to develop the monitoring operations format which needed both considering national unity and local differences, to take long-term continuous monitoring of all major coastal areas, to clarify the source of marine debris, so that government could effectively control the sources of marine debris. As the aspect of management, since the a variety of marine debris sources and diversity of monitoring, the inter-ministerial and responsible agency not only coordinates the various related fields, but also combines the public and private sectors, to truly implement the bill of marine debris management. Overall, Taiwan government must use a variety of economic incentives, cooperation issues and the law, as well as combines the strength of the IV private sectors to effectively manage the management of marine debris.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 1968. / Mimeographed.

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