This thesis concerns the predator-prey interactions of three raptor species in a Swedish arctic community: the gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus) and the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). The gyrfalcon behaved like a highly specialised ptarmigan (Lagopus spp.) predator. Gyrfalcon’s functional response to ptarmigan was close to density independent, and ptarmigan remained the dominating prey even in areas with the lowest ptarmigan density. The gyrfalcon did not respond functionally to microtine rodents (i.e. lemmings and voles) and it was clear that the gyrfalcon did not use microtines as an alternative prey category to ptarmigan. As the gyrfalcons did not switch to any alternative prey when ptarmigan was scarce, their reproductive success seemed to be directly dependent on the amount of ptarmigan available in the breeding territories. Of the two ptarmigan species in the study area, rock ptarmigan (L. mutus) dominated gyrfalcon’s diet. Locally, the proportion of rock ptarmigan in gyrfalcons’ diets showed a positive relationship to the expected availability of rock ptarmigan in the breeding territories, indicating a density dependent utilisation. The rough-legged buzzard behaved like a highly specialised microtine rodent predator and Norwegian lemming (Lemmus lemmus) was its preferred microtine species. The buzzards showed a type 2 functional response to lemmings. Surprisingly though, they also had a type 3 functional response to grey-sided voles (Clethrionomus rufocanus). We present an optimal diet model where a central place forager, during good food conditions, benefits from partial prey preference, which renders separate functional responses to each prey category. We discuss how the double functional responses of the buzzard affect the population dynamics of sympatric vole species, on both temporal and spatial scales. The golden eagle behaved like a generalist predator, and it preyed on all major prey categories in the study area: microtines, ptarmigan, mountain hare, (Lepus timidus) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). It seemed to respond functionally to microtine rodent fluctuations with an increased consumption of lemmings during a peak year in the microtine rodent cycle. The golden eagle showed a numerical response to its main prey, the ptarmigan. Ptarmigan, microtine rodents and hares seemed to have synchronized population fluctuations in the study area. Such synchronized population fluctuations are believed to be generated by predation. Although the three raptors are the main predators of their community, their predation patterns fail to explain the observed prey population dynamics in the study area.

Denna rapport sammanfattar våra vinterinventeringar av oljeskadad alfågel längs Gotlands sydkust under perioden 1996/97 till 2008/09. Rapporten ska ses som ett tillägg till och uppdatering av våra tidigare rapporter där vi redovisat resultat av vinterinventeringar av oljeskadad alfågel längs Gotlands sydkust mellan 1996/97 och 2007/08 (Larsson 2005, Larsson och Tydén 2005, 2007, 2008). I de tidigare rapporterna har vi även behandlat olika frågor som rör alfåglarnas biologi, utnyttjande av utsjöbankar och det stora hot som oljeutsläpp vid Natura 2000 områdena Hoburgs bank och Norra Midsjöbanken utgör mot övervintrande sjöfåglar. Mer detaljerade beskrivningar av undersökningsmetoder mm. kan sökas i de tidigare artiklarna. Mer information kan också fås av författarna. Inventeringarna av oljeskadad alfågel under vintern 2008/09 är genomförd med den standardiserade inventeringsmetodik som använts under tidigare år. Antalet observerade oljeskadade alfåglar vid de olika inventeringstillfällena ska betraktas som index som kan jämföras med tidigare års index. Inventeringarna kan därmed svara på om effekter av oljeutsläppen till havs minskar eller ökar samt även användas för att följa upp delmål i miljömålet "Hav i balans samt levande kust och skärgård". För att beräkna det totala antalet oljeskadade alfåglar per år i centrala Östersjön krävs även andra undersökningsmetoder (se Larsson 2005, Larsson och Tydén 2005). Vintern 2008/09 observerades färre oljeskadade alfåglar längs Gotlands sydkust än under tidigare vintrar. Antalet oljeskadade alfåglar har varierat under den studerade 13-årsperioden. Högst antal observerades under vintrarna 2000/01 och 2001/02 och lägst antal under 2005/06, 2007/08 och 2008/2009. Data från vintern 2004/05 saknas. Det finns inget tydligt samband mellan antal observerade oljeskadade alfåglar under olika vintrar och antalet oljeutsläpp som kustbevakningen årligen registrerat i hela den svenska ansvarszonen, dvs. i svenskt territorialvatten och i svensk ekonomisk zon, eller i svensk ansvarszon öster om Öland och Gotland. Detta visar att information om antalet registrerade oljeutsläpp på nationell eller regional nivå i sig inte räcker för att förutsäga effekter på övervintrande fåglar i Östersjön. Det finns ett stort behov av nya heltäckande inventeringar av övervintrande sjöfåglar på utsjöbankar i Östersjön. Räkningar i Finland och Estland av flyttande alfåglar indikerar att alfågeln har minskat med ca 80 % under de senaste 15 åren (Kauppinen 2008). Inventeringar i kustnära områden i Sverige och på utsjöbanken Hoburgs bank visar också att alfågeln har minskat kraftigt i antal under senare år (Nilsson och Green 2007, Nilsson opubl, Larsson opubl). Ännu kraftfullare åtgärder mot sjöfart av undermålig standard och mot illegala oljeutsläpp måste införas. Eftersom huvuddelen av alla oljeutsläpp sker i fartygsrutterna måste de mest trafikerade rutterna flyttas bort från Östersjöns mest värdefulla Natura 2000-områden. Idag passerar mer än 25 000 fartyg per år genom Natura 2000 området Hoburgs bank. Hoburgs bank är klassat som ett SPA område och som ett SCI område enligt EUs fågel- och habitatdirektiv. En del av Natura 2000-området Hoburgs bank, dvs. den sydöstra delen, är även klassad av International Maritime Organisation IMO som ett område som sjöfarten rekommenderas att undvika (Area to be Avoided). Uppföljningar av AIS information har visat att ett mindre antal fartyg ej följer den av IMO beslutade rekommendationen att inte färdas i det av IMO definierade "area to be avoided" (Sjöfartsverket 2007). Detta är olyckligt men det stora hotet mot fågellivet vid Hoburgs bank kommer dock inte från detta mindre antal fartyg utan från den fartygstrafik, ca 25 000 fartyg, som färdas i rutten väster om det av IMO definierade "area to be avoided" men genom Natura 2000 området Hoburgs bank. Enligt fastställd bevarandeplan för Natura 2000-området Hoburgs bank (Länsstyrelsen Gotlands län, 2005) bör "den fartygsrutt som går över banken flyttas så att fartygsrutten går söder och öster om banken". Beräkningar visar tydligt att antalet upptäckta och oupptäckta illegala oljeutsläpp i Östersjön fortfarande är mycket högt, kanske flera tusen per år. HELCOMs statistik visar att antalet oljeutsläpp med största sannolikhet var ca 2 till 3 gånger fler i slutet på 1980-talet och början på 1990-talet än idag. HELCOMs data visar dock även att antalet upptäckta oljeutsläpp per flygtimme inte har minskat i Östersjön de senaste åren. Efter år 2005 då Östersjön klassades som ett särskilt känsligt havsområde har antalet upptäckta oljeutsläpp per flygtimme snarare ökat. Den sammanlagda volymen utsläppt olja vid dessa utsläpp är relativt liten i jämförelse med den mängd olja och oljeprodukter som når Östersjön från landbaserade källor eller med den mängd olja som kan läcka ut vid en olycka med en stor oljetanker. Studier visar dock tydligt att tid och plats för ett oljeutsläpp, och inte volymen utsläppt olja, är de viktigaste faktorerna som bestämmer hur kraftigt fåglar och fågelpopulationer drabbas. Eftersom sjöfåglar ofta är mycket ojämnt fördelade över Östersjöns yta kan även ett mycket litet oljeutsläpp i ett område som hyser hundratusentals sjöfåglar slå ut en mycket stor del av fågelbestånden. Omvänt så kan även ett större oljeutsläpp i fågelfattiga områden ha liten effekt på bestånden. Det är därför viktigt att styra fartygstrafik bort från nationellt och globalt viktiga områden som hyser mycket stora mängder sjöfågel. Med sannolikt upp mot flera tusen illegala oljeutsläpp per år i Östersjön går det även att konstatera att vi är långt från att uppfylla det av riksdagen beslutade miljömålet att utsläppen av olja och kemikalier från fartyg ska minimeras och vara försumbara senast år 2010. Det finns ett mycket stort behov av att harmonisera den statistik över antalet oljeutsläpp som presenteras av HELCOM och av Kustbevakningen. Olika metoder att beräkna antalet utsläpp ger helt olika slutsatser. Statistik från HELCOMs CEPCO flygningar och statistik från HELCOMs regelbundna flygningar leder t.ex. till helt olika slutsatser vad beträffar totalantalet oljeutsläpp i Östersjön.

Genom sin aktivitet med dammbygge och trädfällning skapar bävern produktiva våtmarker med hög diversitet. Man har funnit att vid bäverns dammkonstruktion var artantalet närmare dubbelt så stort jämfört med i dammen och i det rinnande vattnet i bäcken. Ibland väljer bävern att inte dämma upp vattendragen, utan bygger en hydda längs med strandkanten, något som också kan gynna många arter (Törnblom & Henrikson 2011). Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka hur själva bäverhyddan, byggd intill strandkanten, påverkar förekomsten av vattenlevande evertebrater. Provtagning på vattenlevande evertebrater har gjorts intill bäverhyddor byggda intill strandkanten, samt uppströms och nedströms varje bäverhydda. Statistiska uträkningar har sedan gjort på insamlad data för att se om det råder någon skillnad i antal individer, antal organismgrupper och diversitetsindex mellan bäverhyddan, uppströms och nedströms. Resultatet visar att det fanns en skillnad i antalet individer mellan hyddan, uppströms och nedströms. Det rådde ingen skillnad i antalet olika organismgrupper eller i diversitetsindex. Vattentemperaturens roll och skyddet som ansamlingen av grenar bidrar med är två aspekter som diskuteras som bidragande faktorer till det förhöjda individantalet vid bäverhyddan. Skillnaden i artsammansättning och artantal mellan bäverdammar och bäverhyddor byggda intill strandkanten är något annat som också diskuteras. / The activity of beavers creates productive wetlands with high biodiversity. A previous study found that dam constructions of beavers contribute to a higher number of aquatic invertebrate species compared to upstream and downstream sites. In some cases beavers build their hut along the shore without damming up the water flow (Törnblom & Henrikson 2011). This report is intended to determine how the beaver hut affects the abundance of water living invertebrates.Sampling at the beaver hut, upstream and downstream, of water living invertebrates was performed. To determine differences in individual number, species number and diversity index between the sites statistical calculation was performed. The results show a difference in individual numbers between beaver huts and downstream and upstream sites and the individual number was higher at the beaver hut than the two other sites. No difference in number of species or diversity index was found. The higher temperature of the water and more nutrition is two aspects that are discussed as contributing factor to the higher number of individuals near the hut. The difference in species and species number between a beaver dam and a beaver hut build long side the shore is also discussed.

Typescript (photocopy) / vii, 228 leaves, [43] leaves of plates : ill. ; 31 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Botany, 1981

Theoretical research has demonstrated that ecological interactions in sympatry or parapatry can generate disruptive selection that in concert with assortative mating can lead to speciation. However, empirical examples are few and restricted to terrestrial and lacustrine systems. New Zealand triplefin fishes (Family Tripterygiidae) are an ideal model system to study speciation in the sea, as they conform to the criteria of an adaptive radiation, being philopatric, speciose and abundant, and having largely sympatric distributions. This thesis investigates two key aspects of the New Zealand triplefin radiation: 1) which ecological traits are under selection?; and 2) which traits are potentially available for the development of assortative mating? Habitat use was identified as a possible key trait for selection and investigated in detail in this thesis. Habitat use of the majority of New Zealand triplefin species was censused quantitatively throughout most of their latitudinal range and analysed using novel statistical methods. Analyses showed that habitat use was highly divergent between species and thus diversification in habitat may have been a major component in the evolution of this clade. The phylogenetic analysis of habitat characters confirmed that there has been rapid evolution in habitat use among species. Habitat selection at settlement was highly species-specific, indicating that interspecific differences in adult habitat use may be the outcome of active habitat choice established at settlement. These species-specific habitat associations showed no evidence for geographic variation in habitat use. Laboratory trials and field observations of the sister-species pair Ruanoho decemdigitatus and R. whero showed that competition was linked with body size, with R. decemdigitatus being the larger and consequently dominant species. The second part of this thesis investigated which traits may have contributed to prezygotic isolation, and thus to assortative mating. Little evidence was found for divergence in breeding season or male colour patterns. However, divergence in habitat affected breeding habitat choice, as triplefins court and mate in the same territory as that occupied year round. This suggests that assortative mating in New Zealand triplefin species could be the by-product of adaptation to habitat resources. Body size affected mate choice and time at first maturity in the Ruanoho sister-species pair, suggesting that size is important in the maintenance of reproductive isolation in these species. Differences in body size may have also lead to assortative mating in other New Zealand triplefin sister-species pairs, as all sister-species pairs differ in maximum body size. The findings of this thesis invoke a strong role for ecologically-based selection in speciation, and support the hypothesis that adaptation to habitat has been a major factor in speciation in this system. / This PhD was funded by the New Zealand Royal Society (Marsden Fund 02-UOA-005 to Kendall Clements), the Tertiary Education Commission (Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship), and the University of Auckland (University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship.

Theoretical research has demonstrated that ecological interactions in sympatry or parapatry can generate disruptive selection that in concert with assortative mating can lead to speciation. However, empirical examples are few and restricted to terrestrial and lacustrine systems. New Zealand triplefin fishes (Family Tripterygiidae) are an ideal model system to study speciation in the sea, as they conform to the criteria of an adaptive radiation, being philopatric, speciose and abundant, and having largely sympatric distributions. This thesis investigates two key aspects of the New Zealand triplefin radiation: 1) which ecological traits are under selection?; and 2) which traits are potentially available for the development of assortative mating? Habitat use was identified as a possible key trait for selection and investigated in detail in this thesis. Habitat use of the majority of New Zealand triplefin species was censused quantitatively throughout most of their latitudinal range and analysed using novel statistical methods. Analyses showed that habitat use was highly divergent between species and thus diversification in habitat may have been a major component in the evolution of this clade. The phylogenetic analysis of habitat characters confirmed that there has been rapid evolution in habitat use among species. Habitat selection at settlement was highly species-specific, indicating that interspecific differences in adult habitat use may be the outcome of active habitat choice established at settlement. These species-specific habitat associations showed no evidence for geographic variation in habitat use. Laboratory trials and field observations of the sister-species pair Ruanoho decemdigitatus and R. whero showed that competition was linked with body size, with R. decemdigitatus being the larger and consequently dominant species. The second part of this thesis investigated which traits may have contributed to prezygotic isolation, and thus to assortative mating. Little evidence was found for divergence in breeding season or male colour patterns. However, divergence in habitat affected breeding habitat choice, as triplefins court and mate in the same territory as that occupied year round. This suggests that assortative mating in New Zealand triplefin species could be the by-product of adaptation to habitat resources. Body size affected mate choice and time at first maturity in the Ruanoho sister-species pair, suggesting that size is important in the maintenance of reproductive isolation in these species. Differences in body size may have also lead to assortative mating in other New Zealand triplefin sister-species pairs, as all sister-species pairs differ in maximum body size. The findings of this thesis invoke a strong role for ecologically-based selection in speciation, and support the hypothesis that adaptation to habitat has been a major factor in speciation in this system. / This PhD was funded by the New Zealand Royal Society (Marsden Fund 02-UOA-005 to Kendall Clements), the Tertiary Education Commission (Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship), and the University of Auckland (University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship.

Theoretical research has demonstrated that ecological interactions in sympatry or parapatry can generate disruptive selection that in concert with assortative mating can lead to speciation. However, empirical examples are few and restricted to terrestrial and lacustrine systems. New Zealand triplefin fishes (Family Tripterygiidae) are an ideal model system to study speciation in the sea, as they conform to the criteria of an adaptive radiation, being philopatric, speciose and abundant, and having largely sympatric distributions. This thesis investigates two key aspects of the New Zealand triplefin radiation: 1) which ecological traits are under selection?; and 2) which traits are potentially available for the development of assortative mating? Habitat use was identified as a possible key trait for selection and investigated in detail in this thesis. Habitat use of the majority of New Zealand triplefin species was censused quantitatively throughout most of their latitudinal range and analysed using novel statistical methods. Analyses showed that habitat use was highly divergent between species and thus diversification in habitat may have been a major component in the evolution of this clade. The phylogenetic analysis of habitat characters confirmed that there has been rapid evolution in habitat use among species. Habitat selection at settlement was highly species-specific, indicating that interspecific differences in adult habitat use may be the outcome of active habitat choice established at settlement. These species-specific habitat associations showed no evidence for geographic variation in habitat use. Laboratory trials and field observations of the sister-species pair Ruanoho decemdigitatus and R. whero showed that competition was linked with body size, with R. decemdigitatus being the larger and consequently dominant species. The second part of this thesis investigated which traits may have contributed to prezygotic isolation, and thus to assortative mating. Little evidence was found for divergence in breeding season or male colour patterns. However, divergence in habitat affected breeding habitat choice, as triplefins court and mate in the same territory as that occupied year round. This suggests that assortative mating in New Zealand triplefin species could be the by-product of adaptation to habitat resources. Body size affected mate choice and time at first maturity in the Ruanoho sister-species pair, suggesting that size is important in the maintenance of reproductive isolation in these species. Differences in body size may have also lead to assortative mating in other New Zealand triplefin sister-species pairs, as all sister-species pairs differ in maximum body size. The findings of this thesis invoke a strong role for ecologically-based selection in speciation, and support the hypothesis that adaptation to habitat has been a major factor in speciation in this system. / This PhD was funded by the New Zealand Royal Society (Marsden Fund 02-UOA-005 to Kendall Clements), the Tertiary Education Commission (Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship), and the University of Auckland (University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship.

Theoretical research has demonstrated that ecological interactions in sympatry or parapatry can generate disruptive selection that in concert with assortative mating can lead to speciation. However, empirical examples are few and restricted to terrestrial and lacustrine systems. New Zealand triplefin fishes (Family Tripterygiidae) are an ideal model system to study speciation in the sea, as they conform to the criteria of an adaptive radiation, being philopatric, speciose and abundant, and having largely sympatric distributions. This thesis investigates two key aspects of the New Zealand triplefin radiation: 1) which ecological traits are under selection?; and 2) which traits are potentially available for the development of assortative mating? Habitat use was identified as a possible key trait for selection and investigated in detail in this thesis. Habitat use of the majority of New Zealand triplefin species was censused quantitatively throughout most of their latitudinal range and analysed using novel statistical methods. Analyses showed that habitat use was highly divergent between species and thus diversification in habitat may have been a major component in the evolution of this clade. The phylogenetic analysis of habitat characters confirmed that there has been rapid evolution in habitat use among species. Habitat selection at settlement was highly species-specific, indicating that interspecific differences in adult habitat use may be the outcome of active habitat choice established at settlement. These species-specific habitat associations showed no evidence for geographic variation in habitat use. Laboratory trials and field observations of the sister-species pair Ruanoho decemdigitatus and R. whero showed that competition was linked with body size, with R. decemdigitatus being the larger and consequently dominant species. The second part of this thesis investigated which traits may have contributed to prezygotic isolation, and thus to assortative mating. Little evidence was found for divergence in breeding season or male colour patterns. However, divergence in habitat affected breeding habitat choice, as triplefins court and mate in the same territory as that occupied year round. This suggests that assortative mating in New Zealand triplefin species could be the by-product of adaptation to habitat resources. Body size affected mate choice and time at first maturity in the Ruanoho sister-species pair, suggesting that size is important in the maintenance of reproductive isolation in these species. Differences in body size may have also lead to assortative mating in other New Zealand triplefin sister-species pairs, as all sister-species pairs differ in maximum body size. The findings of this thesis invoke a strong role for ecologically-based selection in speciation, and support the hypothesis that adaptation to habitat has been a major factor in speciation in this system. / This PhD was funded by the New Zealand Royal Society (Marsden Fund 02-UOA-005 to Kendall Clements), the Tertiary Education Commission (Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship), and the University of Auckland (University of Auckland Doctoral Scholarship.

The aim of this thesis is to gain knowledge and understanding about Marine-Based Ecological Education and then apply this knowledge and understanding to form the vision of an Eco-Camp in Western Australia. This has been done in three stages. Part one is an account of my personal immersion in a grass roots not-for-profit environmental youth organization, Millennium Kids. The most valuable lessons that I learnt during this time came through the Environmental Citizenship program. Initially I was a participant, and then on three other occasions I was a facilitator for the program. It was through these programs that I began to understand the value of facilitating lessons learnt from robust healthy nature. Part two of my research is concerned with marine education centres and uncovering their stories; documenting their ethos, education and public relations. I aim to focus on what each centre does best and how this has enabled them to become the entity that they are today. Through this process I collect information that will inform the culminating vision of this thesis, the Eco-camp. Part three is the vision for an Eco-Camp, which has developed organically from my understandings derived from parts one and two. Through both my research on marine education centres and my personal immersion in Millennium Kids Environmental Citizenship program, I began to realize the value and need for an Eco-Camp. The Eco-Camp will be in remote robust healthy nature and will immerse participants in these environments, attuning them to the rhythm of Gaia.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington. / Bibliography: l. [202]-208.