Dans une perspective de réalisation du marché unique européen, la libéralisation des différents secteurs d'activités en Europe dont celui des transports au courant des années 1990, entraîne le développement des différents modes et une surcroissance du transport routier avec certes de réels avantages en terme de développement économique, de compétitivité et d'emploi, mais aussi de sérieux inconvénients : congestion des grands axes routiers et augmentation du taux d'émissions de C02. Encourager l'intermodalité et promouvoir le développement des modes alternatifs à la route, rééquilibrer les différents modes de transport, constituent désormais l'une des principales priorités de l'Europe. Sous les auspices du Livre Blanc de 2001 relatif à la politique européenne des transports, les autoroutes de la mer naquirent sous un jour insuffisamment éclairé, et, actuellement, elles essaient de se frayer un véritable chemin. Elles présentent néanmoins des caractéristiques essentielles : considérées à la fois comme des infrastructures et des services de transport, elles constituent des lignes régulières de transport maritime à haute fréquence et à haute qualité de service, assurant des liaisons entre deux ou plusieurs ports d'au moins deux États membres de l'Union Européenne. Issues de la nouvelle politique européenne des transports, elles répondent aux impératifs de décongestion des grands axes routiers saturés, de sécurité routière, de développement durable et de protection de l'environnement, favorisant ainsi le développement et la croissance du marché intérieur. Or, l'absence d'un statut juridique initial applicable aux autoroutes de la mer a de réels impacts sur l'émergence de ce concept, qui évolue en s'adaptant aux nouvelles contraintes, en relevant de nombreux défis. Le bilan actuellement mitigé des autoroutes de la mer en Europe conduit à s'interroger sur les perspectives de leur pérennisation. Dès lors, notre réflexion est orientée vers deux aspects juridiques essentiels. D'une part l'impact réel de l'absence d'un régime juridique initial sur l'émergence des autoroutes de la mer et sur les mécanismes de financement qui l'accompagnent. D'autre part, la détermination d'un cadre juridique favorable au développement des autoroutes de la mer dans une perspective d'assurer leur meilleure intégration dans la chaîne logistique globale, et leur émergence comme véritable alternative durable, crédible et efficace à la route intégrale. / With the prospect to achieve the European single market, liberalization of various sectors in Europe including transport in the 1990s decade, leads to the development of different means of transport and the increase of road transport activities, certainly with real benefits such as economic development, competitiveness and employment; but also serious drawbacks : congestion of highways and increase in C02 emissions. Encouraging intermodality and promote the development of road alternatives, adjusting the balance between means of transport, is considered as one of European Union key priorities. Under the auspices of 2001 White Paper European transport policy, Motorways of the Sea concept were insufficiently informed, and currently, looking for his own way. Nevertheless they do present essential characteristics: both transport infrastructures and services, Shipping line services which are regular, frequent and of good quality , inbound to two or more sea ports to at least two states member of European Union. From the new European transport policy, they meet the requirements : road safety, sustainable development, safe environment, promoting growth in European Union internal market. However, the absence of an initial legal status applicable to the Motorways of the Sea has a real impact on the emergence of this concept, which evolves by adapting to new constraints, raising many challenges. The current mixed picture of Motorways of the Sea in Europe raises questions about the prospects for their sustainability. Our focus is directed towards two key legal aspects. On one hand the real impact of the absence of an initial legal status on the emergence of motorways of the sea and the funding mechanisms that accompany it. On the other hand, the determination of legal framework favourable to the development of Motorways of the sea which will contribute to a better integration into the global Supply Chain and emerge as truly sustainable alternative, credible and effective to the integral road transport.

Currently, Brazil has 113 petroleum platforms, been 79 fixed and 34 floating, with daily production capacity of 2,1 million barrels of oil. Given this production is necessary a strategy for the efficient distribution of oil to refineries, where it will be processed and refined. Oil from the platforms is transported to refineries through pipelines or ships, with much of the operational cost of production is due to transport. For this reason the minimization of the cost of transport is extremely important. This work has for objective, using the technique of mathematical programming (linear mixed integer programming - LMIP), reduce costs arising from transport system. The model consists of a heterogeneous fleet of ships, which have compartments that can only be occupied by a single type of product on each trip. Initially are generated all possible routes and then selected the vessels, associated with their routes in order to attend the demand of refineries and the need for removal of oil in the storage tanks of the platforms. For the implementation of the model was used the software GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling System), together with the method of CPLEX optimization. The results were satisfactory. / Atualmente, o Brasil possui 113 plataformas de petróleo, sendo 79 fixas e 34 flutuantes, com capacidade de produção de 2,1 milhões de barris diários de petróleo. Diante desta produção torna-se necessária uma estratégia eficiente para a distribuição deste petróleo para as refinarias, onde será processado e refinado. O petróleo proveniente das plataformas é transportado para as refinarias, através de navios ou dutos, sendo que grande parte do custo operacional de produção é devido ao seu transporte. Por este motivo a minimização do custo de transporte é extremamente importante. Este trabalho tem por objetivo, utilizando a técnica de programação matemática (programação linear inteira mista – PLIM), reduzir os custos decorrentes do sistema de transporte. O modelo consiste em uma frota heterogênea de navios, os quais apresentam compartimentos que só podem ser ocupados por um único tipo de produto, em cada viagem. Inicialmente são geradas todas as possíveis rotas e, posteriormente, selecionados os navios, associados às respectivas rotas, de forma a atender a demanda das refinarias e a necessidade de retirada de petróleo dos tanques de armazenamento das plataformas. Para a implementação do modelo foi utilizado o software GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling System), juntamente com o método de otimização CPLEX. Os resultados obtidos foram satisfatórios.

Tudo começou em 2006, quando estagiário de um escritório de advocacia de São Paulo. Já havia passado algumas horas debruçado sobre centenas de Conhecimentos de Embarque e recebendo ligações de bancos estrangeiros que solicitavam o endosso daqueles documentos. Eu me questionava: que documento era aquele que exigia tanto cuidado quanto uma nota promissória original? Por que era tão importante para um banco que o endossássemos rapidamente? Eis que me surge um convite de viagem para conhecer um escritório de advocacia por algumas semanas em Londres. A experiência, por ora um tanto empolgante e aventureira para um jovem de 21 anos, possibilitou um contato frutífero com uma matéria muito específica do Direito Comercial: a natureza jurídica do Conhecimento de Embarque, nos países de língua inglesa chamado de Bill of Lading. Em muitos países, como no Brasil, é um tema pouco explorado, porém na Inglaterra, com seu rico passado de potência marítima durante séculos, é tema de bastante relevo e discussão nas altas cortes. Esta experiência e o contato com a matéria me trouxeram a vontade de poder aplicar em nosso país o aprendizado lá adquirido. Assim, uma dúvidasurgia: por que o Brasil, com o imenso território que tem banhado pelo mar, não é desenvolvido o bastante nesse tema? Por que não chegam aos nossos Tribunais as relevantes discussões sobre o Conhecimento de Embarque? Os próximos anos demandarão do Brasil uma grande mudança. A Copa do Mundo de 2014 e os Jogos Olímpicos de 2016 no Rio de Janeiro exigirão do Brasil quantias vultosas de investimento em infraestrutura e transportes. O comércio marítimo entre o Brasil e os demais países aumentará significativamente com estes eventos de ordem global. Até lá, teremos que estar preparados para esta demanda. E como toda exigência econômica demanda uma exigência jurídica, precisamos reformular os nossos conceitos de Direito Comercial e entender melhor a natureza jurídica do Conhecimento de Embarque, documento que ampara juridicamente as transações comerciais marítimas desde os tempos mais remotos. A conjunção do novo contexto econômico brasileiro com o interesse pela matéria relativa ao Conhecimento de Embarque, despertado desde a época de estudante de Direito, impulsionou o propósito deste trabalho, que tem por objetivo estudar a natureza jurídica do Conhecimento de Embarque sob a ótica da legislação pátria. A legislação brasileira é muito incipiente acerca do tema. Em comparação a diversas legislações estrangeiras, ainda engatinhamos sobre o assunto. Dentre as questões que se pretende ver elucidadas, enfatiza-se: (i) a característica contratual do Conhecimento de Embarque; (ii) a natureza de título de crédito do Conhecimento de Embarque e sua evolução para a versão eletrônica; (iii) o caráter de instrumento internacional que deve satisfazer às partes de diferente nacionalidades; (iv) a utilização em operações de financiamento como garantia real durante o percurso em que a mercadoria transita pelo mar; e, até mesmo (v) o caráter tributário que o Conhecimento de Embarque adquiriu em nosso país. Em suma, pretende-se com este trabalho tentar consolidar o conceito jurídico do Conhecimento de Embarque no Brasil, para que esse instrumento deixe de ser pouco discutido em nosso país e adquira a importância que lhe é devida e que há séculos em outros países já lhe é atribuída / It all began in 2006, when I was a trainee at a Law office in São Paulo. I have already spent hours and hours in front of hundreds of Bills of Lading and receiving calls from foreigner Banks which demanded the endorsement of that document. I used to question myself: What kind of document was that which needed me to be careful as if I was dealing with an original Promissory Note? Why it was so important to a Bank to endorse that document as fast as possible? An invitation to me was made to get to know a law office for some weeks in London. That experience, such exciting and adventurous for a young man of 21 years, made possible a fruitful contact with a very specific theme of Commercial Law: the legal nature of the Conhecimento de Embarque, in the countries of English law known as Bill of Lading. In many countries, such as in Brazil, it is not a theme so much explored, otherwise in England, with its rich history as a maritime power for centuries, it is a very important theme that is also discussed commonly in the High Courts. This experience and contact with this theme made me wonder how could I apply in Brazil the knowledge there acquired. Therefore, a doubt was in my mind: Why Brazil, with its big territory bathed by the sea, is not so developed enough in this subject? Why relevant discussions regarding the Bill of Lading do not arrive in our Courts? The next years will demand from Brazil a big change. The world cup in 2014 and the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro will require from Brazil huge amounts of investments in infra-structure and transportation. The maritime commerce between Brazil and other countries will raise significantly with this two events of global order. Until there, we must get prepared to this challenge. And as all economic requirement demands a law requirement, we need to reshape our concepts of Commercial Law and get to know better the legal nature of the Bill of Lading, the document that legally supports the maritime commercial transactions since the most ancient times. The combination of this new Brazilian economic context and the interest for the theme of the Bill of Lading awakened since when I was a law student boosted the purpose of this work, which aims to study the legal nature of the Bill of Lading in a perspective of Brazilian legislation. Brazil legislation is very weak in this subject. In comparison to other foreigner law, we still crawl about this theme. Among the questions that are intended to be elucidated, it must be highlighted: (i) the contractual characteristic of the Bill of Lading; (ii) the nature of negotiable instrument and its evolution to the electronic version; (iii) the characteristic of international instrument that need to satisfy the parties of different nationality; (iv) the use in financing transaction as a collateral for the route where the goods are being transported by the sea and, also; (v) the tax characteristic that the Bill of Lading acquired in our country. As a conclusion, the purpose of this work is to try to consolidate the legal concept of the Bill of Lading in Brazil, so that this instrument ceases to be little discussed in our country and get the importance that it already has for centuries in other countries.

This thesis defines the most important transport documents used in the carriage of goods by sea. It describes the way how they are used and the functions they perform. The main emphasis is focused on the bill of lading which is mostly used in the liner shipping and on the Charter Party, which is the basis of the realization of the tramp shipping. The thesis gives a comprehensive overview of a complicated international legislation of the liability relations in the maritime transport, which are differently regulated in the Hague, Hague-Visby and Hamburg rules at present. There is also provided a basic overview of the maritime transport risks and the possibility of their coverage in order to reduce the negative impact of eventual damages.

This study examines the Allied notion of victory and how it was expressed in the depth of Allied strategic planning in 1918 for a campaign in 1919. Using the Supreme War Council (SWC) as a lens this study's arguments are threefold. The first is that, with the creation of the SWC, the Allies pursued a notion of victory that was focused on a decisive military defeat of the German army. Their timeline to victory over the enemy was affected by their perception of the enemy’s strength, their assessment of the difficulties inherent in overcoming the military advantage offered by the Central Powers' interior lines, their appraisal of the European members' morale to continue the war, and their ability to gather the necessary superiority in material and manpower resources. The second argument is that, through the SWC, the Allies were able to successfully coordinate strategy and resources. This study analyses the workings of the SWC as an international body and an early example of modern alliance warfare, comparing the perspectives of the British, French, American and Italian representatives in their willingness and unwillingness to coordinate national needs with alliance ones, arguing that the coalition did form a unified policy and strategy for the campaign in 1919. The abrupt ending of the war has obscured historians' understanding of coalition warfare in the First World War, as they have not sufficiently considered the serious planning that took place for 1919. Third, it argues that at the SWC level, the coalition members recognized the interdependent nature of the theatres, and thus the importance of all them for the conduct of the war.