Maternal sensitivity is known to have important implications on children’s development. This study examined the sensitivity with which mothers used to elicit compliance from their children. In particular, this study explored the goal-regulation strategy of accommodation. One hundred twenty-nine mother-toddler dyads from a non-clinical sample were observed during a 5-minute ‘clean-up’ activity. Results showed that mothers’ utilized numerous accommodation strategies. Moreover, the use of individual accommodation strategies was associated with maternal depression, mothers’ level of child-orientation, and children’s age. / text

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ude.dravrah.egelloc@gnufynnej / This research was supported by awards from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD-059835) and the National Institute for Minority Health and Health Disparities (T37-MD000149). The NIH had no further role in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the paper for publication. The authors wish to thank the dedicated staff members of Asociacion Civil Proyectos en Salud (PROESA), Peru and Instituto Especializado Materno Perinatal, Peru for their expert technical assistance with this research. / Revisión por pares

Maternal depression has been found to be a risk factor in the development of child psychopathology (Burke, 2003) and more specifically, in the development of child externalizing disorders (Brennan et al., 2000; Hay et al., 2003; Kim-Cohen et al., 2005). The relation between maternal depression and poor parenting has also been identified in a number of contexts (Lovejoy et al., 2000; Shay & Knutson, 2008), as has the relation between poor parenting and child externalizing disorders (Morrell & Murray, 2003; Pevalin et al., 2003). Because maternal depression confers risk on parenting and child outcome, this study was an attempt to reveal the specifics of how maternal depression relates to the development of child externalizing disorders. The proposed model purports that maternal depression, mediated by trait irritability, which then leads to harsh discipline, will result in the development of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD), but not Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The model also purports that maternal depression, mediated by poor supervision will be associated with care neglect, as found in Knutson et al. (2005), leading to the development of ODD and CD, but not ADHD. Furthermore, it is proposed that child ADHD will not follow either the maternal depression--irritability--poor parenting pattern or maternal depression--supervisory neglect--care neglect pattern. One-hundred thirty four economically disadvantaged mothers who were enrolled in a study of parenting were assessed for depression using both dimensional and categorical measures of current and lifetime depression. Parenting was assessed using a variety of measures which assessed supervisory neglect, care and environmental neglect, and harsh discipline. Maternal irritability not specific to discipline was assessed using the Spielberger Trait Anger Expression Inventory (Spielberger, Johnson, Russell, Crane, Jacobs, & Wordent, 1985). Child externalizing disorders were evaluated based on parent and teacher report as ADHD and a combined ODD/CD construct. As hypothesized, child externalizing disorders were related to maternal depression. The findings of the current study indicate that the relation is not direct and that maternal depression, mediated by trait irritability, leads to poor parenting characterized by inconsistent discipline, and that this poor parenting leads to the development of child ODD and CD. Moreover, whether the index of maternal depression was based on current dimensional data or lifetime history of maternal depression, the results of the analyses supported the hypothesized relation between maternal depression and child ODD/CD. However, an unexpected direct relation between current maternal depression and child ADHD was found, whereas a lifetime history of maternal depression was unrelated to child ADHD. Nonetheless, the relation between maternal depression and child ADHD did not follow the same pattern as the relation between maternal depression and child ODD/CD. Findings suggest that maternal irritability and inconsistent parenting are central to the putative link between maternal depression and child ODD/CD and that depressed mothers should be treated in an effort to reduce the risk for development of child ODD and CD.

Withdrawal in early childhood is a risk factor for the development of many adjustment problems. Mothers’ depressive symptoms may affect the development of withdrawal through complex mechanisms. This study examined the relation of mothers’ depressive symptoms to children’s withdrawal from 24 to 54 months and developmental mechanisms of this relation. Based on data from the NICHD study of Early Child Care, results demonstrate that mothers’ cumulative depressive symptoms from 6 to 24 months predicted children’s withdrawal at 24 months across dyads. From 24 to 54 months, within-dyad increases in mothers’ depressive symptoms predicted within-dyad increases in children’s withdrawal. Finally, low competent parenting was partially responsible for the impact of mothers’ early depressive symptoms on children’s withdrawal. In addition, boys’ withdrawal was more strongly associated with mothers’ depressive symptoms than girls’. / text

With more than 50 percent of mothers in the workforce by their child’s first birthday, maternity leave’s influence on mothers’ well-being and the mother-infant interaction has implications for millions of employed mothers and their children. In this study, I used data from the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care to examine the relations between variation in maternity leave benefit, length of leave, maternal well-being and mother-infant interaction within the context in which mothers make decisions to return to employment after childbirth. These associations depend on a number of important contextual factors including mothers’ subjective beliefs about the costs of employment, family structure and financial situation, mothers’ separation anxiety, and their commitment to work, all of which have important implications for both family and policy. The financial benefit that mothers use during leave varied positively with their socio-demographic characteristics. Paid leaves were related to shorter leaves and to fewer depressive symptoms, but had no direct relation with parenting stress or sensitivity. Mothers’ beliefs about the costs of employment, family structure and finances moderated the effects of paid leave. No direct association emerged between leave length and either maternal well-being or sensitivity, but interactions between leave length and both separation anxiety and work commitment indicated that long leaves are beneficial for only a sub-group of mothers. Results from this study indicate that individual differences are important in understanding the relations among leave type, leave length, maternal well-being and sensitivity. Consequently, effective maternity leave policy should be flexible to accommodate the varying needs of new mothers. / text

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Health disparities exist between rural and urban areas but geographic comparisons of mental health are less studied and conclusive. Maternal depression has not been examined by region or rurality in the United States but might be influenced by geographic locations due to the variance of social support and healthcare available in some locations compared to others. The research focuses on (1) whether rurality increases a mother’s risk of experiencing depression and (2) if region impacts a mother’s risk of depression. I used the NESARC-III data that included three general depressive disorders: major depressive episode, major depressive disorder, and dysthymia. Regions are divided into the Northeast, Midwest, South, and the West. Rurality includes rural and urban locations. Certain demographic variables are included to control for variations by location. The research is a secondary analysis of the NESARC-III data so the research costs are limited. The statistical analysis uses step-wise logistic regression models. The study finds that mothers do not experience depressive disorders differently between regions or rural/urban locations. A check analyzing all females shows that living in the West increases a woman’s risk of experiencing both major depressive episodes and major depressive disorders. Variables explaining the most variation between having and not having a depressive disorder are the social support variables.

Thesis advisor: Summer S. Hawkins / Preventing poor health in childhood is a national social work and public health priority in the United States. Importantly, child health and wellbeing is explicitly linked with maternal health. Thus, maternal depression, a common mental illness, is a concern not only for the mother, but for the health of her offspring. The purpose of this three-paper dissertation was to extend the understanding of child health and wellbeing at age 9 years old in the context of maternal depression. Analyses utilized data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study and were guided by a resilience perspective, life course perspective, family systems theory, and ecological systems theory. Paper 1 examined the unique impact of maternal depression on child physical health outcomes utilizing a series of logistic regression analyses. Findings indicated that multiple individual-, maternal-, and family-level risk and protective factors influenced the association between maternal depression and child physical health. Paper 2 utilized latent profile analysis and multinomial logistic regression analyses to examine child physical health and psychosocial wellbeing in the context of maternal depression. Five distinct profiles of child health and wellbeing were identified, suggesting the traditional dichotomy of healthy versus unhealthy may fail to capture the complex nature of child health and wellbeing for those experiencing maternal depression. Results showed that maternal depression was associated with increased risk of poor health and wellbeing, yet also emphasized the ability for children to achieve resilient functioning. Paper 3 explored the impact of maternal depression on the maternal-child relationship and the protective nature of interpersonal supports and community resources. Findings indicated that interpersonal and community resources directly and indirectly supported a positive maternal-child relationship for mothers with depression. Altogether, results extend the literature base by providing a more nuanced and complete examination of child health and wellbeing in the context of maternal depression, with a focus on the potential for resilient functioning among this at-risk population. Findings provide evidence that even in the context of risk, protective factors exist that support resilient functioning. Results have important policy and practical implications, including continued screenings for maternal depression in a primary care setting. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2017. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Social Work. / Discipline: Social Work.