Anxiety disorders can affect up to 21% of children, with a wide range of negative consequences on academic performance and interpersonal relationships. Recently, there has been an emphasis on the prevention of childhood anxiety, especially considering that anxiety disorders in children often go unnoticed, and treatment is not sought. Identifying risk and protective factors is important in developing prevention programs. A lower stress level in mothers has been theorized to be one variable that may protect against childhood anxiety.In this regard, the present study was designed to examine the relationship between mothers' stress level and anxiety ratings of their children, and determine whether level of maternal stress is significantly correlated with ratings of child anxiety by both mothers and teachers. The study also examined whether there are significant differences between child anxiety scores related to child's gender, ethnicity, or mother's marital status, or interaction effects between these variables and mothers' stress level on child anxiety.Data were collected from the mothers and teachers of 64 first grade children. Mothers completed Parental Stress Index - Short Form (PSI-SF), and both mothers and teachers completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), and data was analyzed using Pearson product moment correlations and Analyses of Variance, as well as regression analyses. Results indicated that ratings of child anxiety on the CBCL by both mothers and teachers were significantly positively correlated with mothers' stress scores on the PSI. It was also found that, in addition to child anxiety problems, child ADHD problems and oppositional/defiant problems made a significant contribution to explaining the total stress scores of mothers.Differences between groups existed relating to mothers' marital status, with children of single mothers having significantly higher anxiety scores, as rated by their mothers. However, differences did not exist relating to child's ethnicity and child's gender. Findings of this study have important implications regarding prevention programs, and highlight the fact that children may be negatively impacted by high levels of maternal stress. Further exploration of the consequences of high levels of maternal stress is needed to gain an understanding of the long-term effects of mothers' stress on their children.

With the alarming prevalence of overweight and obesity, it is important to explore new approaches and strategies to improve dietary quality and weight status. Recently, a neuropsychological model of obesity was proposed. This new model illustrates an evidencebased relationship between a chronically activated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, due to chronic psychological stress and mood disturbance, and the food reward-related mechanisms within the brain. Intensive mindfulness-based training programs, such as Jon Kabat-Zinn's Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction have demonstrated impressive results with a variety of populations. Given the relationship of stress to eating behavior and the capacity of mindfulness in managing stress, a relationship between mindfulness and eating is expected. The goal of this dissertation research was to help understand the concept of mindful eating and the relationship between stress and eating behavior for mothers of young children in order to inform the development of a mindfulness-based stress management and dietary intervention. The research consisted of three components: 1) an informative photo-elicitation study with working mothers of young children aiming to understand how mothers define, perceive, and experience mindful eating; 2) a crosssectional study investigating the relationship between mindful eating, dietary quality, and stress; and 3) the development and mixed-methods pilot intervention of the Slow Down Program, a mindfulness-based stress management and nutrition program for mothers of young children. Results from these studies give further evidence on how mindfulness can be utilized in nutrition research and they further confirm the success of mindfulness-based training on health and dietary outcomes. This research can inform public health programs and practice to encourage mindfulness, as it relates to dietary behavior, for families and other audiences, as well as future research studies that explore the interaction between mindfulness and eating behaviors. / Ph. D.

This dissertation examined the relationship between maternal stressful life events and urogenital infection in preterm birth. A systematic literature review revealed ambivalent findings concerning the relationship between maternal stress and infection during pregnancy; the effects of this relationship on pregnancy outcome were not examined in the reviewed studies. The current study employed a biobehavioral model consisting of maternal stressful life events (illness among family members, divorced, moved, became homeless, partner lost job, mom lost job, argued with partner more than usual, partner did not want the child, inability to pay bills, got in a physical fight, partner went to jail, close friend/relative had a bad problem with drinking or drug use, and close friend/relative died) and urogenital infection (genital warts, herpes, chlamydia, gonorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease, syphilis, Group B streptococcus, bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, yeast infection, urinary tract infection, and other infection) to examine the relationship between these variables in preterm birth. Data from 1,647 respondents of the 2005 Florida Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square and student t- tests, analysis of variance, and structural equation modeling (SEM). Of the respondents, 42% were White, 37.8% had preterm deliveries, and the mean age was 27.1 years. White mothers who became homeless (p = 0.021) or had a partner in jail (p = 0.041) during the 12 months prior to delivery had more preterm deliveries as compared to full-term deliveries. Other non-White mothers who had an ill family member (p = 0.010) had fewer preterm deliveries. In general, mothers diagnosed with Group B streptococcus during pregnancy (p = 0.031) had fewer preterm deliveries. Black mothers diagnosed with herpes (p = 0.006) had fewer preterm deliveries. SEM revealed a significant relationship between maternal stress and infection, in general (p < 0.001), and among White (p < 0.001), Black (p < 0.001), and Hispanic (p < 0.001) mothers. The interaction between these variables was not significant, in general, or among racial/ethnic groups. Results of this study indicate that culturally tailored prevention programs designed to help women cope with multiple risk factors may prove beneficial in reducing preterm birth rates.

Child behavior problems are commonly reported difficulties within the education community and one of the largest referral reasons for parents seeking therapeutic services for their child. These behaviors can escalate to deviant and harmful behaviors that affect a child’s home life, academic success, and relations with family and peers. Current research has identified several parenting variables related to child behavior problems. This study considered the partial mediating role of parenting techniques on the relation between maternal characteristics and child behavior problems as reported by the parents and teachers of Head Start children. Participants in the study were 161 parents with children enrolled in Head Start at one of three programs in Texas or Mississippi. Results suggested that inconsistent discipline partially mediates the relation between maternal distress and parent reported child hyperactivity and aggression. Inconsistent discipline partially mediates the relation between maternal stress and parent-reported child hyperactivity and aggression. Parental involvement was found to be significantly related to childhood attention problems above and beyond maternal distress or stress and relevant demographic characteristics; however, it did not partially mediate those relations. Analyses involving teacher reported child behaviors did not show the same mediational effects. SEM analyses indicated that overall models of partial mediation demonstrated good fit. A major advantage to this study is the collection of data at three Head Start programs in two states that service small city / rural populations, an often underrepresented sample in empirical research. Implications of this project include: (a) a better understanding of the maternal variables most influential on child behavior that can be used to enhance curricula for parent training; (b) more precise screening of at-risk families by professionals that will continue to promote a focus on the whole family and allow for multiple pathways of healthy development for the child (e.g., through direct work with child and through the parents); and (c) continued consideration of the importance of ethnicity on these relations that will continue to foster a respectful and informed therapeutic relationship between professionals and families of young, atrisk children.

No description available.

Stress is associated with a range of unhealthy eating habits. However, no previous studies have used experimental design to take an intergenerational perspective in the examination of how stress may influence parental feeding behavior, nor have they examined potential protective factors. The current study tests the effects of stress on maternal feeding behaviors and explores the potential protective role of maternal executive functioning (EF). We manipulated maternal stress with the Trier Social Stress Task (TSST) in a community sample mothers (N = 61, Mage = 33.45 years). We measured maternal EF with a series of computerized tasks. Maternal feeding behavior was observationally coded using standardized procedures. Results indicate a main effect of stress on controlling feeding styles. Furthermore, this effect of stress on controlling feeding behaviors is ameliorated among mothers with higher levels of EF. Results suggest potential factors to be considered in the treatment and prevention of diet-related illnesses.

In teleost fish, the main glucocorticoid stress hormone, cortisol, is released via the hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis. This thesis examined the premise that social status, maternal experience, and reproductive status affect HPI axis function in fish. Social stress in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) chronically elevates circulating cortisol levels. In this thesis, social subordinance as well as exogenous cortisol treatment resulted in decreased plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels, consistent with a negative feedback role of cortisol in modulating HPI axis activity. At the target tissue level, liver glucocorticoid receptor 2 (GR2) mRNA and total GR protein levels were lower in subordinate fish. Although subordinate fish exhibited elevated resting cortisol levels, cortisol and glucose responses to an acute stressor were attenuated. Using an in vitro head kidney preparation, this attenuated cortisol response was attributed to lower ACTH-stimulated production of cortisol. By contrast, dominant status regulated genes associated with cortisol biosynthesis. The consequences of maternal social status on offspring HPI axis function were investigated in zebrafish (Danio rerio). At 48 hours post-fertilization (hpf), when de novo cortisol synthesis becomes possible, larvae of dominant females exhibited lower baseline cortisol levels accompanied by lower mRNA levels of corticotropin-releasing factor and cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage enzyme. Offspring of subordinate females exhibited attenuated stress-induced levels of cortisol at 144 hpf, perhaps as an adaptive response to maternal stress experience. Finally, modulation of HPI axis function was explored as a mechanism underlying attenuation of the stress response during early paternal care in smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu). In response to a stressor, males guarding free-swimming fry but not eggs elevated plasma ACTH and cortisol as well as mRNA levels of key HPI axis genes. These results point to a hypoactive HPI axis in males during early parental care as a mechanism for resistance to stress in these fish. Collectively, the results of this thesis emphasize the adaptive plasticity of the HPI axis. Activity of the HPI axis in teleost fish can be modulated by the individual’s experience (e.g., social status) or circumstances (e.g., parental care), as well as by maternal stress.

Do Maternal Psychosocial Factors Predict Adolescent Weight? Sandra Jody MarksDepartment of Exercise Sciences, BYUMaster of SciencePurpose: This study investigated the possible relationship between maternal psychosocial factors, mainly maternal stress and maternal depression, and adolescent weight status. Also, this study examined the predictive effect of these maternal psychosocial factors on adolescent weight loss during a health education intervention as well as the months following the health education. Methods: Study design was a longitudinal pretest posttest with a health education intervention. We assessed 40 adolescents and their mothers on four occasions over a 1-year period. At each occasion, the Stress Index for Parents of Adolescents (SIPA) was used to measure maternal stress and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) was used to measure maternal depression. Also, at the four occasions, adolescent anthropometric data were obtained by research assistants using a digital scale for weight and a portable stadiometer for measuring height. Body Mass Index scores (BMI = [weight (kg)]/[height (m)]2) were calculated and converted into a percentile score (zBMI), adjusting for age and gender, using the standard Center for Disease Control and Prevention calculator. At the onset of the study, the adolescent participants and their mothers all received 12 weeks of health education, which included group behavioral therapy, family-based intervention, motivational interviewing and electronic intervention. Results: Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that no significant relationships existed between maternal stress and adolescent zBMI or between maternal depression and adolescent zBMI at baseline (Time 1). Nor did the study find that maternal stress and/or depression scores at Time 1 significantly predicted a greater amount of adolescent weight loss. Lower stress and/or depression also did not significantly predict adolescent weight maintenance after the 12-week intervention (Time 2). However, results did indicate that the adolescent component of the maternal stress domain (AD) from Time 1 to Time 2 was a significant predictor of adolescent zBMI from Time 1 to Time 2, (R2 = 0.238, F (1,21) = 6.571, p = 0.018). This means that 23.8% of the variability in overall zBMI change from Time 1 to Time 2 is being accounted for by change in the maternal AD stress domain from Time 1 to Time 2. Conclusion: Adolescent zBMI decreased concurrently with maternal stress during the health education intervention stage. Although the correlational nature of this study prevents causal claims, this result suggests that decreasing maternal stress may strengthen the ability of obese adolescents to effectively lose weight. This study encourages further research to examine the effects that maternal psychosocial factors may have on adolescent weight status, weight loss, and weight maintenance.

Yes

The median prevalence of smoking among women of childbearing age in the United States is 22.4%. Of women who identify themselves as smokers in the three months prior to conception, 55% quit during pregnancy; however, 40% of those who quit relapse and return to smoking within six months after delivery. Smoking has been identified as an important means of stress management among smokers in general, and though limited to the perinatal period, pregnancy-specific stress adds to a woman’s typical day-to-day stress burden. Little data exists as to the effect of SHS exposure on smoking status during pregnancy and the impact of SHS exposure on the maternal perception of stress is unknown. Due to limited evidence, a critical need exists to examine the relationships of perceived maternal stress, SHS exposure, and perinatal smoking status in order to better understand perinatal smoking behaviors. The purposes of this dissertation were to: 1) evaluate the literature examining the relationship between the variables of maternal stress, SHS exposure, and perinatal smoking status; 2) determine the reliability and validity of the Everyday Stressors Index (ESI) use in pregnant women; and 3) to investigate the impacts of maternal perception of everyday stress, and SHS exposure on perinatal smoking status. Evidence obtained from the critical review of the literature supported an association between psychosocial stress and smoking during pregnancy or postpartum. Little information regarding the role of SHS exposure on perinatal smoking status was discovered. Psychometric testing of the ESI demonstrated strong internal consistency reliability, and factor analysis yielded three factors capturing three important domains of everyday stress. SHS exposure emerged as the most significant predictor of smoking status. Persistent smokers/relapsers had the highest ESI scores, followed by quitters, and then nonsmokers. While ESI means decreased in all smoking status groups from the first to the third trimester, the magnitude of decrease was not predictive. A significant interaction effect of SHS exposure in the home and decrease in ESI score occurred in the quit group only with quitters 1.14 times more likely to experience a decrease in ESI score compared to smokers/relapsers.