Autonomy is a critical component of early childhood with important implications for children’s competence and well-being (e.g., Erikson, 1963; Mahler, Pine & Bergman, 1975; Sroufe & Rutter, 1984). Although parental autonomy support is associated with the development of early autonomy (e.g., Endsley, Hutcherson, Garner & Martin, 1979; Frodi, Bridges & Grolnick, 1985; Landry, Smith, Swank & Miller-Loncar, 2000), the mechanisms underlying these associations are largely unexplored. Mothers’ emotions and the affective climate of parent-child interactions may be critical factors by which parenting influences early autonomy. This study (a) examined the degree to which discrete, naturally occurring maternal emotions regulate four indicators of autonomy during toddlerhood: co-regulated goal-directed behavior, low aimlessness, self-assertion, and positive initiative, (b) explored mechanisms through which maternal emotion exerts an influence on children’s autonomous behaviors, and (c) isolated the contribution of mothers’ emotions to children’s autonomous behaviors over that of mothers’ autonomy-supportive behavior. Several important findings emerged. First, maternal emotions, both felt and expressed, were related to children’s autonomous behaviors--mostly in ways predicted by emotion and relationship theories. In general, mothers’ frequent joy and infrequent anger, sadness, and fear predicted high autonomy. Second, the affective climate of mothers’ interactions with their toddlers predicted children’s autonomous behaviors over and above mothers’ autonomy-supportive behavior, suggesting that parental emotion is a unique aspect of autonomy support. Finally, different forms of early autonomy were predicted by different emotions in mothers, emphasizing the complexity of autonomy and the need to better define and measure this construct. / text

The aim of this qualitative study was to explore and describe the experiences and needs of mothers of sexually abused children. A conceptual framework outlined the theoretical underpinnings of this study which focused on the core theoretical concepts of Gestalt therapy theory and the field of child sexual abuse with particular focus on the impact that the child’s trauma has on the mother. Semi–structured interviews were conducted with a sample of five mothers in order to gain rich data from their phenomenological experience. These interviews were transcribed into text and analysed. Several themes and categories emerged and were explored with the use of a literature control. These themes included the mother’s phenomenological experience of the sequence of disclosure, their awareness of the impact of their child’s sexual abuse on their holistic sense of self, their intra and interpersonal contact making styles, their need to facilitate a healthy sense of self and lastly their phenomenological knowledge gained through their field experience. The disclosure of their child’s sexual abuse signifies the start of the secondary trauma experienced by mothers, and the start of the cycle of a new experience that they struggle to bring to closure. This knowledge that their child has been sexually abused has an immediate negative impact on the mother’s field and their sense of self. Their process of healthy self–regulation is hindered due to the strong negative polarities in the self being formed and the self–blame that the mothers experience. This study therefore concluded and strongly recommended that mothers of sexually abused children receive support in the form of therapeutic intervention and education while their child receives therapy. / Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The aim of this qualitative study was to explore and describe the experiences and needs of mothers of sexually abused children. A conceptual framework outlined the theoretical underpinnings of this study which focused on the core theoretical concepts of Gestalt therapy theory and the field of child sexual abuse with particular focus on the impact that the child’s trauma has on the mother. Semi–structured interviews were conducted with a sample of five mothers in order to gain rich data from their phenomenological experience. These interviews were transcribed into text and analysed. Several themes and categories emerged and were explored with the use of a literature control. These themes included the mother’s phenomenological experience of the sequence of disclosure, their awareness of the impact of their child’s sexual abuse on their holistic sense of self, their intra and interpersonal contact making styles, their need to facilitate a healthy sense of self and lastly their phenomenological knowledge gained through their field experience. The disclosure of their child’s sexual abuse signifies the start of the secondary trauma experienced by mothers, and the start of the cycle of a new experience that they struggle to bring to closure. This knowledge that their child has been sexually abused has an immediate negative impact on the mother’s field and their sense of self. Their process of healthy self–regulation is hindered due to the strong negative polarities in the self being formed and the self–blame that the mothers experience. This study therefore concluded and strongly recommended that mothers of sexually abused children receive support in the form of therapeutic intervention and education while their child receives therapy. / Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Être parent engendre son lot de frustrations (Dix, 1991). Pour rester de bons modèles d’autorégulation émotionnelle et comportementale pour leurs enfants, la façon dont les mères composent avec leurs émotions de colère est cruciale. Or, la documentation s’est davantage concentrée sur la façon dont les mères doivent soutenir les émotions de leurs enfants, sans égard à leurs propres vécus émotionnels (Eisenberg, Cumberland et Spinrad, 1998, Miller-Slough, Zeman, Poon et Sanders, 2016). En raison du nombre limité d’études conduites à ce jour sur la colère maternelle possiblement constructive, la présente thèse exploratoire se veut une étape préliminaire à l’élaboration d’un programme de recherche plus large. Le but général de la thèse se décompose en deux grands objectifs. D’une part, elle vise à explorer trois réponses alternatives aux manifestations destructives de colère (c.-à-d., suppression expressive, nommer la colère et rappeler les règles/attentes) et d’autre part, elle s’intéresse au rôle différentiel de la colère en la comparant aux effets des autres émotions maternelles susceptibles d’être vécues simultanément. La présente thèse inclut trois études à devis transversal dont les données proviennent d’un même échantillon composé de 145 dyades mère-enfant (enfants âgés entre 9 ans et 13 ans). La première étude compare trois réponses alternatives envisageables pour remplacer les manifestations destructives de colère. Les résultats suggèrent que nommer la colère, même lorsque ses formes plus hostiles sont contrôlées, ne représente pas une alternative viable puisqu’elle est associée à la présence de comportements symptomatiques chez les enfants. Cette réponse de colère est également liée négativement à la satisfaction de vie et à l’estime de soi des enfants. À l’inverse, les résultats indiquent que la suppression expressive ne semble pas non plus recommandable puisqu’elle est aussi liée à la présence de comportements symptomatiques. Finalement, rappeler les règles/attentes aux enfants est associée positivement à la satisfaction de vie et à l’estime de soi des enfants, ce qui suggère qu’elle pourrait être une alternative envisageable. La deuxième étude s’intéresse à des situations typiques de non-coopération et examine les relations entre les trois réponses alternatives aux manifestations destructives de colère (cette fois codées) et l’internalisation des règles chez les enfants, évaluée par quatre indicateurs d’internalisation (c.-à-d., compréhension des règles, importance perçue de la règle pour la mère, émergence de peur/inquiétude et types de régulation). Aucune relation significative ne fut cependant trouvée entre les réponses de colère et les variables à l’étude. La troisième et dernière étude explore les relations uniques entre la colère maternelle perçue par les enfants et des indicateurs d’internalisation des règles, en contrôlant pour les effets des autres émotions négatives pouvant être vécues simultanément à la colère (c.-à-d., tristesse, mépris, honte, attitude bienveillante). Les résultats montrent que la colère, lorsque la présence des autres émotions maternelles est contrôlée, est associée à une meilleure compréhension des règles chez les enfants, appuyant l’idée selon laquelle cette émotion aurait une fonction socialisatrice importante. Par ailleurs, la colère est également associée à une régulation externe, suggérant que cette émotion ne favorise pas l’autodétermination des enfants. Les relations entre les autres émotions et les indicateurs d’internalisation des règles sont également discutées dans cette étude. Pris dans leur ensemble, les résultats contribuent à la documentation portant sur la colère maternelle de multiples façons. Les implications théoriques, pratiques et cliniques sont discutées. / Being a parent can be highly frustrating (Dix, 1991). To remain a good model of emotional and behavioral self-regulation for their children, the way mothers cope with their anger is crucial. However, the literature has rather focused on how mothers should support their children's emotions, regardless of their own emotional experiences (Eisenberg et al., 1998, Miller-Slough et al., 2016). Due to the limited number of studies conducted to date on possible constructive maternal anger expression, this exploratory thesis is intended as a preliminary step in the development of a broader research program. The general aim of this thesis is divided into two main objectives. The first objective is to explore three alternative responses to destructive forms of anger (i.e., expressive suppression, naming anger and reminding rules and expectations), while the second is to examine the differential role of anger on children’s internalization of rules process, by comparing this emotion’s associations with those of other maternal emotions (i.e., sadness, contempt, shame, compassion). This thesis includes three cross-sectional studies, conducted using the same sample of mother-child dyads. In total, 145 dyads (children aged between 9 and 13 years old) participated in these studies. The first study compares three possible alternative responses to destructive manifestations of anger. The results suggest that naming anger, even when more hostile manifestations of anger is controlled, is not a recommendable alternative since it is associated with the presence of symptomatic behaviors in children. This anger response is also negatively linked to children's life satisfaction and self-esteem. Conversely, the results indicate that expressive suppression is also not recommendable since it is also linked to the presence of symptomatic behaviors. Finally, reminding children of the rules and expectations is positively associated with children's life satisfaction and self-esteem, suggesting that this anger response may be a possible alternative. The second study looks at a specific situation of non-cooperation and examines the relations between the three alternative responses to destructive manifestations of anger (this time coded) and children’s internalization of rules process, evaluated by four indicators (i.e., understanding the rules, perceived importance of the rule for the mother, child emotional load and types of regulation). No significant relation however emerges between the anger responses and the study variables. The third and final study explores the unique relations between perceived maternal anger (child report) and the same four indicators of internalization of rules, controlling for the effects of other negative emotions that are likely to be experienced simultaneously with anger. The results show that anger, when the other maternal emotions are controlled, is associated with a better understanding of the rules by children, supporting the idea that this emotion may have an important socializing function. Yet, anger is also associated with external regulation, suggesting that this emotion does not promote children's self-determination. The relations between other maternal emotions and the different indicators of internalization of rules are also presented. Taken together, the results of the present thesis contribute to the literature on maternal anger in multiple ways. These theoretical, practical and clinical implications are discussed.