Clock synchronization in a wireless sensor network (WSN) is essential as it provides a consistent and a coherent time frame for all the nodes across the network. Typically, clock synchronization is achieved by message passing using carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) for media access. The nodes try to synchronize with each other, by sending synchronization request messages. If many nodes try to send messages simultaneously, contention-based schemes cannot efficiently avoid collisions which results in message losses and affects the synchronization accuracy. Since the nodes in a WSN have limited energy, it is required that the energy consumed by the clock synchronization protocols is as minimum as possible. This can be achieved by reducing the duration for which the clock synchronization protocols execute. Synchronous clock synchronization protocols in WSNs execute the clock synchronization process at each node, roughly during the same real-time interval, called synchronization phase. The duration when there is no synchronization activity is called the synchronization interval. Synchronization phases are divided into synchronization rounds. The energy consumed by these protocols depends on the duration of the synchronization phase and how frequently the synchronization phase is executed. Hence, to minimize the energy consumption by each node, the duration of synchronization phase should be as small as possible. Due to different drift rates of the clocks, the synchronization phases at different nodes drift apart and special techniques are required to keep them in sync. An existing protocol, called improved weighted-average based clock synchronization (IWICS) uses a pullback technique to achieve this. If a message from (i + 1)th synchronization round is received by a node still executing the ith synchronization round, the receiving node reduces its next synchronization interval to ensure greater overlap in the synchronization rounds. The reduction in overlap is a gradual and continuous phenomenon, and so, it can be detected and dealt with continuously. In this thesis, first, we make use of TDMA-based MAC protocols, instead of CSMA, to deal with the problem of message losses. We discuss the challenges of using TDMA-based MAC protocols for clock synchronization and how to overcome these challenges. Second, The IWICS protocol calculates the virtual drift rate which we use to modify the duration of the synchronization interval so that there is more overlap between the synchronization phases of neighbouring nodes. We refer to this technique as drift rate correction. Finally, we propose a different pullback technique where the pullback detection is carried out in each of the synchronization phase as opposed to the old pullback mechanism where it would be detected only when an out-of-round synchronization message is received. The proposed pullback technique when applied to the current synchronization interval ensures that the synchronization phases, that follow the current synchronization interval, are better synchronized with each other. As a result of this, we are able to reduce the duration of synchronization phases further. The IWICS protocol with all these modifications incorporated is termed as the TIWICS (TDMA-based IWICS) protocol. Simulation and experimental results confirm that the TIWICS protocol performs better in comparison to the existing protocols.

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The Electric/Electronic architecture of vehicle becomes more complex and costly, self-adaption can reduce the system, enhance the adaptive meanwhile reduce energy consumption and costs. The self-adaption needs the cooperation of both hardware and software reconfigurations, such that after the software is reconfigured the automotive network continues to fulfill the time constraints for time-critical applications. The thesis focuses on the real-time network reconfiguration. It uses EAST-ADL to model a real-time automotive system with timing events and constraints, which conforms to AUTOSAR timing extensions. The network media access is analyzed based on the model and a scheduling algorithm is developed. Then the concept is implemented by a use case, which is transformed from an EAST-ADL model to an executable simulation.

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a collection of sensor nodes distributed over a geographical region to obtain the environmental data. It can have different types of applications ranging from low data rate event driven and monitoring applications to high data rate real time industry and military applications. Energy efficiency and reliability are the two major design issues which should be handled efficiently at all the layers of communication protocol stack, due to resource constraint sensor nodes and erroneous nature of wireless channel respectively. Media access control (MAC) is the protocol which deals with the problem of packet collision due to simultaneous transmissions by more than one neighboring sensor nodes. Time Division Multiple Access based (TDMA-based) and contention-based are the two major types of MAC protocols used in WSNs. In general, the TDMA-based channel access mechanisms perform better than the contention-based channel access mechanisms, in terms of channel utilization, reliability and power consumption, specially for high data rate applications in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). TDMA-based channel access employs a predefined schedule so that the nodes can transmit at their allotted time slots. Based on the frequency of scheduling requirement, the existing distributed TDMA-scheduling techniques can be classified as either static or dynamic. The primary purpose of static TDMA-scheduling algorithms is to improve the channel utilization by generating a schedule of smaller length. But, they usually take longer time to generate such a schedule, and hence, are not suitable for WSNs, in which the network topology changes dynamically. On the other hand, dynamic TDMA-scheduling algorithms generate a schedule quickly, but they are not efficient in terms of generated schedule length. We suggest a new approach to TDMA-scheduling for WSNs, that can bridge the gap between these two extreme types of TDMA-scheduling techniques, by providing the flexibility to trade-off between the schedule length and the time required to generate the schedule, as per the requirements of the underlying applications and channel conditions. The suggested TDMA-scheduling works in two phases. In the first phase, we generate a valid TDMA schedule quickly, which need not have to be very efficient in terms of schedule length. In the second phase, we iteratively reduce the schedule length in a manner, such that the process of schedule length reduction can be terminated after the execution of an arbitrary number of iterations, and still be left with a valid schedule. This step provides the flexibility to trade-off the schedule length with the time required to generate the schedule. In the first phase of above TDMA-scheduling approach, we propose two randomized, distributed and parallel TDMA-scheduling algorithms viz., Distributed TDMA Slot Scheduling (DTSS) and Randomized and Distributed TDMA (RD-TDMA) scheduling algorithm. Both the algorithms are based on graph coloring approach, which generate a TDMA schedule quickly with a fixed schedule length ( Colouring), where is the maximum degree of any node in the graph to be colored. The two algorithms differ in the channel access mechanism used by them to transmit control messages, and in the generated schedule for different modes of communication, i.e., unicast, multicast and broadcast. The novelty of the proposed algorithms lies in the methods, by which an uncolored node detects that the slot picked by it is different from the slots picked by all the neighboring nodes, and the selection of probabilities with which the available slots can be picked up. Furthermore, to achieve faster convergence we introduce the idea of dynamic slot-probability update as per which the nodes update their slot-probability by considering the current slot-probability of their neighboring nodes. Under the second phase of the proposed TDMA-scheduling approach, we provide two randomized and distributed schedule compaction algorithms, viz., Distributed Schedule Compaction (DSC) and Distributed Schedule Length Reduction (DSLR) algorithm, as the mechanism to trade-off the scheduling time with the generated schedule length. These algorithms start with a valid TDMA schedule and progressively compress it in each round of execution. Additionally, Furthermore, the execution of these algorithms can be stopped after an arbitrary number of rounds as per the requirements of underlying applications. Even though TDMA-based MAC protocols avoid packet loss due to collision, due to erroneous nature of wireless medium, they alone are not sufficient to ensure the reliable transmission in WSNs. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is the technique commonly used to provide error control for unicast data transmission. Unfortunately, ARQ mechanisms cannot be used for reliable multicast/broadcast transmission in WSNs. To solve this issue, we propose a virtual token-based channel access and feedback protocol (VTCAF) for link level reliable multicasting in single-hop wireless networks. The VTCAF protocol introduces a virtual (implicit) token passing mechanism based on carrier sensing to avoid the collision between feedback messages. The delay performance is improved in VTCAF protocol by reducing the number of feedback messages. Besides, the VTCAF protocol is parametric in nature and can easily trade-off reliability with the delay as per the requirements of the underlying applications. Finally, by integrating all the works, viz., TDMA-scheduling algorithms (DTSS/RD-TDMA), schedule compaction algorithms and link layer feedback mechanism for reliable multicast/ broadcast, we propose a TDMA-based energy aware and reliable MAC protocol, named TEA-MAC for multi-hop WSNs. Similar to VTCAF, TEA-MAC protocol uses the combination of ACK-based and NACK-based approaches to ensure reliable communication. But, instead of using virtual token-based channel access, it uses contention-based channel access for NACK transmission. All the algorithms and protocols proposed in this thesis are distributed, parallel and fault tolerant against packet losses to support scalability, faster execution and robustness respectively. The simulations have been performed using Castalia network simulator to evaluate the performance of proposed algorithms/protocols and also to compare their performance with the existing algorithms/protocols. We have also performed theoretical analysis of these algorithms/protocols to evaluate their performance. Additionally, we have shown the correctness of proposed algorithms/protocols by providing the necessary proofs, whenever it was required. The simulation results together with theoretical analysis show that, in addition to the advantage of trading the runtime with schedule length, the proposed TDMA scheduling approach achieves better runtime and schedule length performance than existing algorithms. Additionally, the TEA-MAC protocol is able to considerably improve the reliability and delay performance of multicast communication in WSNs.

The Electric/Electronic architecture of vehicle becomes more complex and costly, self-adaption can reduce the system, enhance the adaptive meanwhile reduce energy consumption and costs. The self-adaption needs the cooperation of both hardware and software reconfigurations, such that after the software is reconfigured the automotive network continues to fulfill the time constraints for time-critical applications. The thesis focuses on the real-time network reconfiguration. It uses EAST-ADL to model a real-time automotive system with timing events and constraints, which conforms to AUTOSAR timing extensions. The network media access is analyzed based on the model and a scheduling algorithm is developed. Then the concept is implemented by a use case, which is transformed from an EAST-ADL model to an executable simulation.:1. Introduction 2. Research Fundamentals 2.1. AUTOSAR Specifications for Modeling Function Communication 2.2. Media Access Control in Real-time Network 3. Function Communication Model and Determination of Network Configuration 3.1. Function Communication Model 3.2. Scheduling Algorithm for Media Access 4. Implementation of Communication Model and Plugin for Model Transformation 4.1. EAST-ADL Modeling Language 4.2. Implementation of Function Communication Model in EAST-ADL 4.3. Model Transformation Plugin and Simulation Tool Integration 5. Evaluation of the Function Communication Model 5.1. Use-Case Model for Evaluation 5.2. Time Values of Use-Case Model 5.3. Analysis and Evaluation of Simulation Result 6. Conclusion and Outlook 6.1. Conclusion of the Work 6.2. Outlook of the Future Work A. OMNeT++ Simulation Log B. EAST-ADL Model to Artop Model Mapping Bibliography Nomenclature

[ES] Las redes de sensores inalámbricas (WSN) han experimentado un resurgimiento debido al desarrollo de la Internet de las Cosas (IoT). Una de las características de las aplicaciones de la IoT es la necesidad de hacer uso de dispositivos sensores y actuadores. En aplicaciones como automatización de edificios, de gestión energética, industriales o de salud, los nodos sensores que componen la WSN, transmiten información a un colector central o sink. La información es posteriormente procesada, analizada y utilizada para propósitos específicos. En cada una de estas aplicaciones, los dispositivos sensores pueden considerarse como parte de una WSN. En ese sentido el modelado y la evaluación de las prestaciones en las WSN es importante, ya que permite obtener una visión más clara de su comportamiento, facilitando un adecuado diseño y una exitosa puesta en operación. En el presente trabajo de tesis se han desarrollado modelos matemáticos para evaluar las prestaciones de WSN, los cuales están basados en Cadenas de Markov en Tiempo Discreto (DTMC). Los parámetros de prestaciones elegidos para la evaluación son: energía consumida promedio, eficiencia energética, caudal cursado y retardo promedio de los paquetes. Los resultados que se han obtenido han sido validados por medio de simulación basada en eventos discretos (DES). Existen estudios de WSN en escenarios homogéneos, donde los nodos que componen la red inalámbrica son del mismo tipo y tienen las mismas características de operación. En estos análisis se definen WSN homogéneas compuestas por un nodo central o sumidero (sink), que recibe la información de los nodos sensores localizados alrededor, formando una célula o cluster. Estos nodos realizan las transmisiones en SPT (Single Packet Transmission), enviando un solo paquete por ciclo de transmisión. Sin embargo, es posible encontrar, más ahora con el desarrollo de la IoT, escenarios donde coexisten distintos tipos de nodos, con características diferentes y, por tanto, con requerimientos de operación específicos. Esto da lugar a la formación de clusters cuyos nodos tienen aplicaciones distintas, desigual consumo de energía, diversas tasas de trasmisión de datos, e incluso diferentes prioridades de acceso al canal de transmisión. Este tipo de escenarios, que denominamos heterogéneos, forman parte de los escenarios estudiados en el presente trabajo de tesis. En una primera parte, se ha desarrollado un modelo para evaluar las prestaciones de una WSN heterogénea y con prioridades de acceso al medio. El modelado incluye un par de DTMC de dos dimensiones (2D-DTMC) cada una, cuya solución en términos de la distribución de probabilidad estacionaria, es utilizada para determinar los parámetros de prestaciones. Se desarrollan, por tanto, expresiones cerradas para los parámetros de prestaciones, en función de la distribución estacionaria que se ha obtenido a partir de la solución de las 2D-DTMC. En una segunda parte, se desarrolla un modelo analítico también pensado para escenarios heterogéneos y con prioridades, pero en el que los nodos de la WSN, cuando consiguen acceso al canal, transmiten un conjunto de paquetes en vez de uno solo como en el modelo de la primera parte. Estos dos modos de operación de los sensores los denominamos aggregated packet trans- mission (APT) y single packet transmission (SPT), respectivamente. El número de paquetes que un nodo funcionando en APT trasmite cuando accede al canal es el menor entre un parámetro configurable y el número de paquetes que tuviera en la cola en ese momento. Este modo de operación consigue una mayor eficiencia energética y un aumento en el caudal cursado, además de una disminución en el retardo promedio de los paquetes. En una tercera parte, se propone un nuevo procedimiento analítico para la determinación del consumo energético de los nodos que conforman una WSN. A diferencia de los métodos de cálculo anteriores, la nueva prop / [CA] Les xarxes de sensors sense fils (WSN) han experimentat un ressorgiment causa de al desenvolupament de la Internet de les Coses (IoT). Una de les característiques de IoT és la inclusió, en les seves aplicacions, de dispositius sensors i actuadors. En aplicacions com automatització d'edificis, de gestió energètica, industrials o de salut, els nodes sensors que componen la WSN, transmeten informació a un col·lector central o sink. La informació és posteriorment processada, analitzada i utilitzada per a propòsits específics. En cadascuna d'aquestes aplicacions, els dispositius sensors poden considerar com a part d'una WSN. En aquest sentit el modelitzat i l'avaluació de l'acompliment en les WSN és important, ja que permet obtenir una visió més clara del seu comportament, facilitant un adequat disseny i una exitosa posada en operació. En el present treball de tesi s'han desenvolupat models matemàtics per avaluar l'acompliment de WSN, els quals estan basats en Cadenes de Markov en Temps Discret (DTMC). Els paràmetres d'acompliment obtinguts per a l'avaluació són: energia consumida mitjana, eficiència energètica, cabal cursat i retard mitjà dels paquets. Els resultats que s'han obtingut, han estat validats per mitjà de simulació basada en esdeveniments discrets (DES). Existeixen estudis de WSN en escenaris homogenis, on els nodes que componen la xarxa sense fils són de el mateix tipus i tenen les mateixes característiques d'operació. En aquests anàlisis prèvies es defineixen WSN homogènies compostes per un node central o embornal (sink), que rep la informació dels nodes sensors localitzats al voltant, formant una cèl·lula o cluster. Aquests nodes realitzen les transmissió en SPT (Single Packet Transmission), és a dir, enviant un sol paquet cada vegada que transmeten. No obstant això, és possible trobar, més ara amb el desenvolupament de la IOT, escenaris on hi ha una coexistència de distints tipus de nodes, amb característiques diferents i, per tant, amb requeriments d'operació específics. Això dona lloc a formació de clusters els nodes tenen aplicacions diferents, desigual consum d'energia, diverses taxes de transmissió de dades, i fins i tot diferent prioritats d'accés a canal de transmissió. Aquest tipus d'escenaris, que anomenem heterogenis, formen part dels escenaris estudiats en el present treball de tesi. En una primera part, s'ha desenvolupat un model per avaluar l'acompliment d'una WSN heterogènia i amb prioritats d'accés al medi. El modelitzat inclou un parell DTMC de dues dimensions (2D-DTMC), la solució en termes de la distribució estacionària de probabilitat, és utilitzada per obtenir posteriorment els paràmetres d'acompliment. Es desenvolupen, per tant, expressions tancades per a la determinació dels paràmetres d'acompliment, on és substituïda la distribució estacionària que s'ha obtingut a partir de la solució de les 2D-DTMC. En una segona part, es desenvolupa un model, en el qual els nodes pertanyents a la WSN, poden transmetre els seus paquets en agregat (APT) en escenaris heterogenis i amb prioritats. A diferència del model anterior, on els nodes transmeten un paquet per cicle (SPT), en APT els nodes poden transmetre més d'un paquet. Això porta com a conseqüència una major eficiència energètica, a més d'un augment en el cabal cursat i disminució en el retard mitjana. En una tercera part, es proposa un nou desenvolupament analític per a la determinació del consum energètic dels nodes que conformen una WSN. A diferència de les expressions utilitzades anteriorment per al càlcul del consum energètic, aquesta proposta alternativa permet obtenir resultats més precisos a través del desenvolupament d'expressions més intuïtives i sistemàtiques. Amb aquest nou procediment, es realitzen estudis energètics per WSN en escenaris homogenis i heterogenis. / [EN] Wireless sensor networks (WSN) have experienced a resurgence due to the development of the Internet of Things (IoT). One of the characteristics of IoT is the deployment of applications that require sensor devices and actuators. In applications such as building automation, energy management, industrial or health, the sensor nodes that make up the WSN transmit information to a central collector or sink. The information is processed, analyzed, and used for specific purposes. In each of these applications, the sensor devices can be considered part of a WSN. In this sense, the modeling and performance evaluation of WSN is important, since it allows obtaining a clearer vision of their behavior, facilitating an adequate design and a successful operation. In the present thesis, analytical models based on Discrete Time Markov Chains (DTMC) have been developed to evaluate the performance of WSN. The parameters defined for the performance evaluation are: average consumed energy, energy efficiency, throughput and average packet delay. The obtained results have been validated by means of discrete event simulation (DES). There are studies of WSN in homogeneous scenarios, where the nodes that compose the WSN are of the same type and have the same operating characteristics. In these previous studies, homogeneous WSN are defined as a cell or cluster composed of a central node or sink, which receives the information from the sensor nodes located around it. These nodes operate in SPT (Single Packet Transmission), sending a single packet per transmission cycle. However, it is possible to find, especially now with the development of the IoT, scenarios where different types of nodes coexist, although they have different characteristics or specific operational requirements. This results in the formation of clusters whose nodes have different applications, uneven power consumption, different data transmission rates, and even different priorities for access to the transmission channel. These types of scenarios, which we call heterogeneous, are part of the scenarios studied in this thesis work. In the first part, a model has been developed to evaluate the performance of a heterogeneous WSN and with priorities to access a common channel. The model includes a two-dimensional DTMC pair (2D-DTMC), whose solution in terms of the stationary probability distribution is used to obtain the performance parameters. Closed expressions are provided for the determination of performance parameters of interest, given in terms of the stationary distribution of the 2D-DTMC. In a second part, an analytical model is developed to evaluate the performance of a heterogeneous WSN, where nodes operate in aggregate packet transmission (APT) mode and deploy different channel access priorities. Un like the previous model, where the nodes transmit one packet per cycle (SPT) when they gain access to the channel, in APT the nodes can transmit a number of packets larger than one, that is the minimum between a configurable parameter and the number of packets in the packet queue of the node. This results in greater energy efficiency and throughput, while decreases the average packet delay. In a third part, a new analytical model is proposed to determine the energy consumption of the nodes that make up a WSN. Unlike previous computation procedures, this alternative proposal is based on more intuitive and systematic expressions and allows to obtain more accurate results. With this new procedure, energy studies are performed for WSN in homogeneous and heterogeneous scenarios. / Este trabajo se ha desarrollado en el marco de los siguientes proyectos de investigación: Platform of Services for Smart Cities with Dense Machine to Machine Networks, PLASMA, TIN2013-47272-C2-1-R and New Paradigms of Elastic Networks for a World Radically Based on Cloud and Fog Computing, Elastic Networks, TEC2015-71932-REDT. También quisiera agradecer el apoyo recibido por parte de the European Union under the program Erasmus Mundus Partnerships, project EuroinkaNet, GRANT AGREEMENT NUMBER - 2014-0870/001/001 y La Secretaria de Educación Pública (México), bajo el Programa para el Desarrollo Profesional Docente: SEP-SES (DSA/103.5/15/6629). / Portillo Jiménez, C. (2021). Modelado y evaluación de prestaciones de redes de sensores inalámbricos heterogéneos con ciclo de trabajo síncrono [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/171275 / TESIS

Imagine a world where someone’s personal information is constantly compromised, where federal government entities AKA Big Brother always knows what anyone is Googling, who an individual is texting, and their emoticons on Twitter. Government entities have been doing this for years; they never cared if they were breaking the law or their moral compass of human dignity. Every day the Federal government blatantly siphons data with programs from the original ECHELON to the new series like PRISM and Xkeyscore so they can keep their tabs on issues that are none of their business; namely, the personal lives of millions. Our allies are taking note; some are learning our bad habits, from Government Communications Headquarters’ (GCHQ) mass shadowing sharing plan to America’s Russian inspiration, SORM. Some countries are following the United States’ poster child pose of a Brave New World like order of global events. Others like Germany are showing their resolve in their disdain for the rise of tyranny. Soon, these new found surveillance troubles will test the resolve of the American Constitution and its nation’s strong love and tradition of liberty. Courts are currently at work to resolve how current concepts of liberty and privacy apply to the current conditions facing the privacy of society. It remains to be determined how liberty will be affected as well; liberty for the United States of America, for the European Union, the Russian Federation and for the people of the World in regards to the extent of privacy in today’s blurred privacy expectations.