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No / Hair pigmentation is controlled by tightly coordinated programs of melanin synthesis and involves signaling through the melanocortin type 1 receptor (MC-1R) that regulates the switch between pheomelanogenesis and eumelanogenesis. However, the involvement of other signaling systems, including the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathway, in the control of hair pigmentation remains to be elucidated. To assess the effects of BMP signaling on hair pigmentation, transgenic mice overexpressing the BMP antagonist noggin (promoter: keratin 5) were generated. Whereas wild-type C3H/HeJ mice have a subapical yellow band on otherwise black dorsal hairs, K5-Noggin mice are characterized by the absence of a yellow band and near-black pigment in dorsal coat. Noggin overexpression is accompanied by strongly reduced levels of Agouti signal protein and enhanced expression of microphthalmia transcription factor in the midphase of the hair-growth cycle. Wild-type color in K5-Noggin mice is restored by administration of a synthetic MC-1R antagonist resulting in the reappearance of a subapical yellow band. BMP-4 stimulates the expression of Agouti transcripts and protein in primary epidermal keratinocytes, and BMP signaling positively regulates dermal papilla-specific enhancer of the Agouti gene in primary dermal fibroblasts. Taken together, these data suggests that BMP signaling controls the expression of Agouti protein in the hair follicle and provide evidence for interaction between BMP and MC-1R signaling pathways to modulate the balance between pheomelanogenesis and eumelanogenesis during hair growth.

Neural crest cells are a transient population of cells which differentiate into multiple derivatives. How these derivatives become specified is not well understood but Sox10 is known to be important in many of them. We are interested in defining the precise role of Sox10 in zebrafish melanophores. Current evidence suggests that the only vital function that Sox10 performs in melanophores is to induce expression of the melanocyte master regulator mitfa (Elworthy et al. 2003). We explored a model for Sox10 function in melanophores, based upon a model for Sox10’s role in mouse sympathetic neurons (Kim et al. 2003), and tested the following predictions: as well as inducing expression of mitfa, Sox10 will repress expression of genes downstream of Mitfa thus, Sox10 must be downregulated, via Mitfa, to allow melanophore differentiation. We observed derepression of melanophore marker genes in sox10t3 mutants, supporting the hypothesis that Sox10 represses these genes in wild type melanophores. We documented Sox10/sox10 downregulation in developing melanophores and generated transgenic lines to test whether this is necessary for differentiation. Unfortunately our experimental lines did not express our transgene so we were unable to test this hypothesis. However, transgenic lines, generated as controls, which express CFP in melanophores or xanthophores will be useful tools in their own right. Finally we conducted RNA injection experiments to explore regulation of melanophore genes by Sox10 and Mitfa. We found that injection of mitfa induces expression of all our melanophore markers whereas co-injection of mitfa and sox10 does not. We also found that the 7.2 kb sox10 promoter contains six Mitf binding sites and is Mitfa responsive. Our data broadly support our original model but also suggest that it does not describe the complete network. We propose a modified model for the role of Sox10 in the genetic regulatory network controlling melanophore development.

During development, neural crest (NC) cells arise from the neural plate border and are further differentiated into multiple cell types, including melanocytes. Each step of this process is controlled by a gene regulatory network (GRN), and disruption of the GRN governing melanocyte differentiation contributes to the pathogenesis of pigmentation disorders and melanoma. While many of the factors within this network have been well studied, the role of Transcription Factor Activating Enhancer-Binding Protein 2 (TFAP2) paralogs has been unclear. TFAP2A and TFAP2C are required for NC induction. Later, TFAP2A is also expressed in melanocytes, and TFAP2A mutations cause pigmentation phenotypes in humans, mice, and zebrafish. Other paralogs with high homology to TFAP2A, particularly TFAP2B in mouse and Tfap2e in zebrafish, also function redundantly with TFAP2A in the melanocyte lineage. Here, we have used ChIP-seq and expression profiling to identify direct transcriptional targets of TFAP2A in melanocytes, which include genes involved in melanin synthesis and melanosome biology. Furthermore, we show that TFAP2A directly regulates many of the same genes as Microphthalmia-associated Transcription Factor (MITF), the “master regulator” of the melanocyte lineage. MITF activity has been described as a rheostat in melanoma, with high levels promoting differentiation and lower levels promoting invasiveness. The overlap between TFAP2A and MITF transcriptional targets in melanocytes suggests that TFAP2A may influence the MITF rheostat, driving it toward the differentiated state. To study the role of other TFAP2 paralogs in NC and melanocytes, we generated zebrafish lines that are double and triple mutant for tfap2a, tfap2c, and tfap2e and confirm genetic compensation among these paralogs. We also demonstrate that melanocyte-specific inhibition of Tfap2 activity by Kctd15 affects differentiation and that Kctd15 may participate in a negative feedback loop regulating Tfap2 expression. In support of a pro-differentiation role for TFAP2A in melanocytes, we show that overexpression of tfap2a in a zebrafish melanoma model significantly delays tumor formation. Together these results indicate that, in addition to its earlier roles in the NC, TFAP2A acts within the melanocyte GRN to directly regulate differentiation genes in parallel with MITF. This, combined with the tumor-suppressor function of TFAP2A in melanoma, implicates TFAP2A and the factors that regulate it as potential targets for melanoma therapies.

La première partie de la thèse était de définir et de valider une méthode d'extraction de cellules épidermiques la plus simple, la plus efficace et la plus applicable à des petits échantillons, et évitant les réactifs animaux. Dans cette étude, TrypLPM, une enzyme de dissociation cellulaire exempte d'origine animale, a remplacé la dispase et la trypsine comme enzyme destinée à l'extraction des mélanocytes. Ce produit pourrait simplifier le protocole d'extraction, éliminer les contaminants pathogènes potentiels de l'animal et diminuer la contamination par les kératinocytes pendant l'extraction et la culture des mélanocytes. L'efficacité d'extraction a été jugée sur les critères suivants: séparation épiderme / derme, fonctionnalité des mélanocytes extraits (prolifération, synthèse de la mélanine).La deuxième partie de la thèse était d'explorer l'interaction entre l'épiderme et le derme dans l'hyperpigmentation, en se focalisant sur la protéine Dickkopf 1 (Dkkl) qui est sécrétée par le fibroblaste dermique et codée par le gène Dkkl. Dkkl est un inhibiteur de la voie de signalisation Wnt, qui en isolant le co-récepteur LRP5 / 6, empêche la formation du complexe Frizzeled-Wnt­LRP5 / 6. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que TGF-β1 participe au développement du lentigo solaire en réduisant l'expression de Dkkl dans les fibroblastes par la voie p38 MAP kinase, ce qui conduit à une activation de la cascade de signalisation Wnt / β-caténine. Cette hypothèse a été confirmée dans le modèle cellulaire 2D de fibroblastes issus de lentigo et de peau normale adjacente, et également dans le modèle de peau 3D irradiée aux UV, en étudiant l'expression génique et la sécrétion protéique de Dkk 1. / The first part of the thesis was to define and validate an epidermal cell extraction method being the simplest, the most effective and applicable to smaller samples and avoiding animal reagents. In this study, TrypLE™, an animal origin-free cell dissociation enzyme, replaced dispase and trypsin as dissociated enzyme for melanocytes extraction. This product could simplify extraction protocol, eliminate potential pathogenic contaminants from animal and decrease keratinocytes contamination during extraction and subculture of melanocytes. The extraction efficiency was judged on the following criteria: separation epidermis / dermis, functionality of the extracted melanocytes (proliferation, melanin synthesis).The second part of the thesis was to explore the role of cross-talking between epidermis and dermis in hyperpigmentation, focused on Dickkopf-related protein l(Dkkl) which is secreted by dermal fibroblast and encoded by Dkkl gene is an antagonistic inhibitor of the Wnt signaling pathway, by isolating the LRP5/6 co-receptor and preventing the Frizzeled-Wnt-LRP5/6 complex formation. We hypothesized that TGF-βl mediates development of solar lentigo by reducing Dkkl expression in fibroblasts through the p38 MAP kinase pathway, which leads to an activation of the Wnt/ β-catenin signaling cascade. This hypothesis was confirmed in the fibroblast of lentigo and adjacent normal skin, also in the UV A-irradiation 3D skin mode! by testing of Dkkl secretion in protein level and Dkkl expression in RNA level.

No / We have examined whether melanin affects Ca2+ homeostasis in cultured normal human melanocytes. Intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i), were measured in four Caucasian and in three Negroid melanocyte cultures. Under resting conditions [Ca2+]i was around 100 nM in all cultures, but differences between cells within cultures were observed. All cultures responded to endothelin-1 (ET-1) with increases in [Ca2+]i and there were no differences between Caucasian and Negroid cultures. However, large differences in responses between cells within cultures were observed, indicating that melanocyte cultures are very heterogeneous. The addition of 2.5 mM CaCl2 to melanocytes kept in Ca2+-free medium resulted in rapid and transient increases in [Ca2+]i of up to 1500 nM. These increases were on average more than two times smaller in melanocyte cultures established from Negroid donors compared with Caucasian cultures. In addition, well melanized Caucasian melanocytes, cultured in the presence of 400 ¿M tyrosine and 10 mM NH4Cl, showed a reduced increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration upon the addition of extracellular Ca2+. The difference in maintaining Ca2+ homeostasis between poorly and well melanized melanocytes may be the result of the clearance of cytoplasmic Ca2+ into melanosomes and the greater capacity for this in the more pigmented melanocytes.

No / The skin pigment melanin is produced in melanocytes in highly specialized organelles known as melanosomes. Melanosomes are related to the organelles of the endosomal/lysosomal pathway and can have a low internal pH. In the present study we have shown that melanin synthesis in human pigment cell lysates is maximal at pH 6.8. We therefore investigated the role of intramelanosomal pH as a possible control mechanism for melanogenesis. To do this we examined the effect of neutralizing melanosomal pH on tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis in 11 human melanocyte cultures and in 3 melanoma lines. All melanocyte cultures (9 of 9) from Caucasian skin as well as two melanomacell lines with comparable melanogenic activity showed rapid (within 24 h) increases in melanogenesis in response to neutralization of melanosomal pH. Chemical analysis of total melanin indicated a preferential increase in eumelanin production. Electron microscopy revealed an accumulation of melanin and increased maturation of melanosomes in response to pH neutralization. In summary, our findings show that: (i) near neutral melanosomal pH is optimal for human tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis; (ii) melanin production in Caucasian melanocytes is suppressed by low melanosomal pH; (iii) the ratio of eumelanin/phaeomelanin production and maturation rate of melanosomes can be regulated by melanosomal pH. We conclude that melanosomal pH is an essential factor which regulates multiple stages of melanin production. Furthermore, since we have recently identified that pink locus product (P protein) mediates neutralization of melanosomal pH, we propose that P protein is a key control point for skin pigmentation. We would further propose that the wide variations in both constitutive and facultative skin pigmentation seen in the human population could be associated with the high degree of P-locus polymorphism.

No / It has long been appreciated in science that correlation does not imply causation. However, with any logical fallacy, simply spotting that the reasoning behind an argument is faulty does not imply that the resulting conclusion is false. Thus, I begin the tricky business of exploring the basis upon which researchers and clinicians are often tempted to conclude that two medical conditions (here alopecia areata and vitiligo), with some striking resemblances, are in fact related. This is relevant, particularly if assumptions of shared aetiology (and to some extent shared pathomechanism) encourage a common strategy to finding a treatment or cure.

No / In this study, we have demonstrated the presence of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and melanin-concentrating hormone receptor (MCHR1) transcripts in human skin. Sequence analysis confirmed that the transcripts of both genes were identical to those previously found in human brain. In culture, endothelial cells showed pro-MCH expression whereas no signal was found in keratinocytes, melanocytes, and fibroblasts. MCHR1 expression was restricted to melanocytes and melanoma cells. Stimulation of cultured human melanocytes with MCH reduced the ¿-MSH-induced increase in cAMP production. Furthermore, the melanogenic actions of ¿-MSH were inhibited by MCH. We propose that the MCH/MCHR1 signalling system is present in human skin and may have a role with the melanocortins in regulating the melanocyte.