M.A. / On-going traumatic events have become a tragic reality within South African society, with ubiquitous psychological consequences for those involved. The major political upheaval - specifically in the past five years - and the process of transition to a new South Africa has had an impact on all South Africans. Journalists have played a fundamental role in the process of transition, and many have been exposed to scenes of extreme unrest and accompanying violence. It is apparent that the need exists to study the effects of on-going stress in this group of individuals. This study regarding the effects of unabated exposure to violence and trauma in journalists (specifically crime reporters) had the following objectives: (I) A comprehensive literature survey which focuses on the theory and history of combat-related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Theory that has developed in response to disaster psychology was included. (ii) An investigation of the effects of exposure to unremitting violence and trauma in a journalistic context. The initial part of the study focuses on a thorough theoretical investigation which provides a systemic framework for the conceptualization of PTSD. The literature reveals that not all individuals develop Posttraumatic Stress Disorder after a traumatic event; PTSD in individuals who have been exposed to on-going violence and trauma cannot be conceptualized on a linear level, whereby following exposure to a specific stressor/trauma, the inevitable outcome would be PTSD. It is clear that although the stressor is necessary, it is not sufficient to cause the disorder. On the contrary, there are other factors which play a fundamental role in whether or not the victim perceives the event as overwhelmingly stressful. These factors are termed - mediating factors" and include pre-existing biological factors, pre-existing psycho-social factors and events that occurred post-trauma (such as the availability of an adequate support system). The fact that insufficient psychological assistance subsequent to exposure to the trauma was available to the group of journalists that took part in the study, was apparent. The reasons for this may have been that due to the "macho-ethic" that pervades their functioning the individuals in question, deny themselves access to a structured and regular way of defusing their experiences. A criticism that could be levelled against this study is that the researcher elected to conduct a single interview with each journalist. The issues that arose as a result of the interviews were real, but were not able to be dealt with and followed up on. A further criticism is that there has been a relatively extended time factor between the heightened trauma and violence to which the journalists were subjected and the interview that provided the material for this study. Trauma has conventionally been defined as a linear occurrence, as an external event which impacts on people's lives in a random, haphazard manner. However, it is strongly felt that it should be seen within a bigger ecosystemic context as an event which has become so much a part of our society as we currently know it. Recommendations were made as a result of the study, and these are: that a follow-up study be conducted which would have as it's aim an in-depth investigation of individual long-term cases in journalists who are victims of violence; that journalists be afforded mandatory psychological intervention following their exposure to violence and trauma as it is clear that psychotherapy is strongly indicated for individuals with PTSD; that group programmes be devised with the objective of educating this group of individuals with regard to PTSD and other severe stress responses.

A Dissertation Submitted to the School of Psychology, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Clinical Psychology, / The idea of psycho-immunity stands as a relatively new field of inquiry focusing on resilience and coping instead of breakdown and pathology. In line with this shift in the literature, the present research has attempted to explore the relationship between the quality of mothering experienced by the child and subsequent patterns of perceived competence revealed by that same child. Black township children were selected as subjects as they are deemed to be a population "at risk" due to the cumulative political and socio-economic exigencies that have affected this community for many years. A total of 72 township children between the ages of 12 -17 were assessed. Both structured and supplementary unstructured instruments were employed in order to measure the quality of the maternal relationship on the one hand, and the child's perception of his/her own competence (or resilience) on the other. Results converged to indicate that for the sample investigated, it was the specific "holding" capacity, availability and involvement of the affectively engaged mother-figure that was most highly correlated with competence of a scholastic nature in early adolescence. Conversely, the intrusive mother who wields power as a parenting style was shown to be more likely to raise a child with a poor sense of social acceptance and competence. These findings provide penetrating insights regarding the potency of the maternal dyad in fostering resilience and competence in off-spring. They offer further understanding of the role of black parenting styles in either promoting or demoting the development of psychologically healthy youths who have the potential to become active participants in a new and more just South Africa. / Andrew Chakane 2018

“A research project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MA by Coursework and Research in the field of Industrial/Organisational Psychology in the Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 15 March 2016.” / Student well-being has become an increasing concern for universities both locally and internationally, with an increased interest in the prevention of academic burnout and the promotion of academic engagement due to their respective negative and positive influence on students. Accordingly, the Job Demands-Resource (JD-R) model was developed as a theoretical framework, incorporating environmental characteristics that predict symptoms of engagement and burnout in individuals. A major criticism of the JD-R model is its lack of consideration for the impact of personal resources on individual well-being. Emanating from this concern, the current study used the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory to empirically investigate whether the personal resource of Psychological Capital (PsyCap) interacted within the health impairment and motivation processes of the JD-R model. More specifically, it examined whether PsyCap mediated the relationship between demands/resources and burnout/engagement within a South African university environment. Few studies have attempted to integrate personal resources into the JD-R model, and no known studies have applied this integration within a student-university context. This provides a unique and novel context for application, warranting further research. Research participants either accessed an online questionnaire via a web link made available to them on the university’s student portal, or a hard copy version of the questionnaire was distributed during lecture time. The questionnaire included a self-developed demographic questionnaire, an adapted version of the Student Stress Scale (Da Coste Leite & Israel, 2011), an adapted version of the Factors of Academic Facilitators Scale (Salanova, Schaufeli, Martinez, & Breso, 2010), the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Scale (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker, 2002), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Student (Schaufeli, Salanova, et al., 2002), and the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (Luthans Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007). The final sample (N=331) consisted of both full-time and part-time undergraduate students in their first, second or third year of study at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.” “Results of the current study demonstrated that PsyCap mediated the relationship between academic obstacles and academic engagement, as well as, the relationship between academic facilitators and academic engagement. It also demonstrated, however, that PsyCap was not significantly related to academic burnout, and therefore was not a mediator in the relationship between academic obstacles/facilitators and academic burnout. Furthermore, results indicated that direct, positive relationships between academic obstacles and academic burnout; academic facilitators and PsyCap; and PsyCap and academic engagement existed, while a direct, negative relationship between academic obstacles and PsyCap existed. These findings were supported with previous research and literature. In addition, the current study also produced some non-hypothesised, but not unexpected, findings. Firstly, academic burnout and engagement was found to be moderately and negatively related, and secondly, engagement appeared to mediate the relationship between PsyCap and academic burnout. Additionally, an indirect, positive and weak relationship was found to exist between academic obstacles and burnout, while an indirect, negative and weak relationship was found between academic facilitators and academic burnout”. In conclusion, the current findings provide support for JD-R and COR theoretical assumptions, as well as the significant role personal resources play in the JD-R model in predicting student well-being. / MT2017

In a resource-rich environment, WS of CSA, wanting to enter therapy in order to deal with their early life trauma, can choose from an array of potential treatment modalities. One such intervention is called wilderness therapy. Although a number of studies have investigated various facets ofthis fairly new therapeutic modality, this is not the case for WS as potential clients. This study with its focus on how WS ofCSA experience and perceive therapeutic change as a result of participating in wilderness therapy, intended to explore how this intervention facilitates change. The research aimed to elicit phenomenological insights that could assist in the development and refinement of the therapeutic approach and its intricate constituents. The sample included twelve WS ofCSA (21 years and older) ofwhom four took part in a fourday therapeutic wilderness experience in the Drakensberg Mountains, a World Heritage Site, while another four joined a traditional time-limited therapy group. Four participants opted to withdraw from the study. Factors that influenced the decision to withdraw were explored. Ethical considerations necessitated a pre-interview with each participant. It allowed the researcher to screen each WS for her suitability, but also to identify her unique therapeutic needs, while also providing an opportunity to acquaint her with the research project as a whole, and more specifically with the respective therapeutic intervention. The researcher gathered interview data after each intervention, which after transcription was analysed using an experience-near, phenomenological research model (Colaizzi, 1978; Giorgi, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989) that included validation through the participants. The themes that the participants of each group described were analysed and then presented in diagrammatical form. A comparison of the results elicited elements common to both therapeutic interventions, but more importantly the unique features ofwilderness therapy. These included (a) the reality of therapeutic change in terms of CSA-related issues, (b) nature as a significant therapeutically containing space, and (c) silence as a tool for facilitating catharsis. The reality of post-hike depression and the change-inducing quality ofanticipatory anxiety evolved as other significant elements of therapy within a nature setting. The themes were examined in greater depth leading to the conclusions that wilderness therapy is a valuable therapeutic modality for WS of CSA, possibly best used as an adjunct, and offers unique therapeutic change mechanisms to these trauma survivors. Because of its exploratory nature, the study was unable to outline these mechanisms in more detail and hence suggestions for further in-depth research were made. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Child and adolescent mental health represents a key area of concern and public health relevance. Mental health disorders are one of the most prevalent illnesses affecting young people and contribute significantly to the global burden of disease. Childhood and adolescent mental health problems often persist into adulthood and as such frequently result in lifelong negative consequences. Yet despite the growing concern with regards to the mental health needs of children and adolescents, not much research, both internationally and particularly locally, has focused on the provision of mental health services to children and adolescents. Additionally, little has been published on the changes and trends in diagnostic rates and assessment procedures over time. Only a few international studies have investigated mental health trends in children and adolescents; hence, there is a crucial need for South African data to inform preventative and curative services for children in South Africa. This present study therefore investigated the trends and patterns relating to diagnostic rates and assessment practices in children and adolescents over time at a local South African psychological community service centre in Pietermaritzburg. The study was a retrospective chart review and the sample consisted of 679 case files from children and adolescents between 3-17 years of age, who had been seen at a local psychological service centre between 1987-1989, 1997-1999 and 2007-2009. The case files were systematically analysed with regards to diagnosis and assessment practices. It was hypothesised that the years of continuous social and political conflict in the Pietermaritzburg area, namely 1987-1989, had a direct impact on the psychological development and well-being of children and adolescents from this area, and that this would be reflected in the case files from the corresponding years. The research findings with regard to the assessment practices were comparable to the internationally observed trends relating to choice of tests and procedures. In addition, the findings of the current study also showed similar trends with regard to the increasing diagnostic rates for ADD/ADHD, Mood Disorder, and Autism Spectrum Disorders as were observed internationally. Additionally, the reported decreasing diagnostic rates for Mental Retardation and behaviour disorders were also found in this local study. However, the internationally observed increases in Anxiety Disorder diagnoses contrast with the findings of this study, where the results revealed that the rates for Anxiety Disorder and PTSD were considerably higher in the late 1980s and 1990s. This finding supports the initial hypothesis that the violence and social unrest had an effect on children’s psychological well-being. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

This research aims to investigatethe relationship between rape survivors levels of distress, coping style, health profile and immune system. Psychoneuroimmunology, an interdisciplinary field of study, is employed as a framework to understand the relationship between the levels of distress, coping style, health profile and the immune system A sample of 36 rape survivors was initially recruited for this study. However data collected from a sample of 12 female rape survivors was selected for this research. These participants completed questionnaires measuring levels of distress, impact of the event, recent life changes and health profile at time 1 (5 days post rape), time 2 (15 days post rape) and time 3 (35 days post rape) . the immunological measures included CD 3, CD 4, CD 8, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, lymphocytes, white cell count, platelets and mv(time 1 only). The results revealed significant relationships between levels of distress and immune parameters; health profile and immune parameters; ways of coping and immune parameters and levels of distress and immune parameters. Significant differences were obtained for CD 4 5 (p= 0.039) between time 1 and time 2, as well as between time 2 and time 3. A significant difference (p = 0.039) was noted for platelets between time 2 and time 3. The levels of distress were raised at time 2. Observation ofeach participant revealed no dramatic changes across time 1, 2 and 3. When a person is subjected to rape, heightened levels of distress are experienced 15 days post rape. Rape survivors experience changes in the levels of distress , health profile, ways of coping and immune parameters over a 35 days post rape period. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

This study is seen as a step towards addressing the acute shortage of psychometric instruments that can be validly and reliably used in the assessment of Zulu-speaking individuals. The Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R) , a 90-item multidimensional self-report symptom inventory, was translated into Zulu. A multistage translation procedure, involving back-translation, decentering, and the committee approach was employed. The translated instrument was pretested on a group of Zulu farm workers (N = 12) and revisions made in order to improve its comprehensibility and acceptability to Zulu respondents. The psychometric equivalence of the Zulu and English versions of the SCL-90-R was investigated with bilingual Zulu students (N = 61) . Scale-level factor analysis yielded similar factor structures for both versions, and suggests that the Zulu SCL-90-R may be best utilised as a global measure of psychological distress. Scores at the scale- and item-level were reasonably comparable for the two language versions, although retest effects and apparent bilingual response sets suggest that the bilingual technique may not be a valid means of assessing translation equivalence. Acceptable test-retest reliability and internal consistency measures were obtained, indicating that the translation into Zulu did not adversely affect the reliability of the SCL-90-R. The concurrent validity of the Zulu SCL-90-R was investigated with samples of male psychiatric inpatients (N = 23) and nonpatients (N = 26). The global severity index of the SCL-90-R demonstrated moderate diagnostic efficiency, with a sensitivity of 70% and a specificity of 77%. These results suggest that the Zulu SCL-90-R may be validly utilised for the purpose of screening for mental illness. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sci.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

<p>The aim of this paper was to identify the sources of stress for teachers involved with inclusive education as well as whether there is a statistically significant difference in stress experienced by teachers based on their biographical details. In this research the focus was on intellectual disability.</p>

Indigenous people tend to consult traditional healers when a family member manifests change in behaviour, whilst conventional treatment disregards spirituality when preserving mental health. The aim of the study was to explore the perceptions of indigenous people and the role of traditional healers in the management of mentally ill persons within the Cacadu District in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study has adopted a qualitative approach which was exploratory and descriptive in nature. The sample consisted of nine relatives of mental health care users (MHCUs) and six traditional healers. Ethical principles were also taken into consideration by the researcher during the process of conducting the study. Data were collected from two strata, namely, relatives of the MHCUs and the traditional healers and an interview guide was used to conduct in-depth face-to-face interviews. Data were analysed using Tesch’s method of data analysis. Four themes emerged from the data categories and sub categories were identified. According to the themes participants indicated the negative impact of mental illness; as a result they portrayed great desperation regarding the means of accessing a cure for mental illness. Some participants showed insufficient knowledge regarding mental illness and had different perceptions and beliefs regarding the origin of mental illness. Available literature was used to emphasise and support the views that were expressed by both traditional healers and relatives of MHCUs. It has been highlighted from this study that indigenous people of Cacadu District view mental illness as spiritual in origin but they include Western medication for the benefit of the mentally ill. In addition, the relatives of the MHCUs highlighted the economic burden as the major problem that results from mental illness.

M.A. (Clinical Psychology) / The present study explores the possible constraining effects of gender and cultural roles on the mental health of Black South African women. The specific focus is on the mental health of professional Black women who have been alienated from their traditional roles, yet find themselves in a context of traditional role prescriptions. In-depth interviews were conducted to obtain qualitative data on the subjective experiences of two professional women, one of which had been diagnosed as having Major Depression. The observations obtained from the case studies support the literature, in that both women experience a considerable amount of role strain; the// most important of which are in congruent role expectations, role ambiguity and role overload. Possible factors contributing to role strain are discussed within the context of a transitional South African society. It has been found that structural and normative variables account for most. of the role strain experienced by the women. The need for new role definitions by both Black professional women and men, as well as a greater role flexibility are emphasized. Research regarding interventions on both individual and societal level are recommended.