The aim of this thesis is to investigate the proposition that group members use help-seeking as a strategic tool for managing and enhancing the ingroup’s image in the eyes of outgroups. The theoretical introduction outlines and assesses the history of helping-transaction research, beginning with the rich and multi-faceted work carried out by anthropologists and sociologists, before considering how social psychology has addressed this topic. The conclusion from this assessment is that the academic contribution of much of the social psychological helping-transaction research from the 1960s onwards was limited, due to its failure to address: i) the relevance of social groups, and ii) the idea that engagement in helping transactions can be motivated by desires to achieve underlying goals that relate to personal improvement or gain. Although more recent social psychological work investigated these issues, they remain under-studied. Attempting to address these neglected areas, this thesis adopts a social identity perspective, and conceptualises help-seeking as an image-management strategy. This concept is investigated in the context of a specific phenomenon with the potential to threaten the group’s image: a salient meta-stereotype. Meta-stereotypes are the stereotypes we believe to be held about our group by outgroups, and are context-dependent and often negative in valence. The prediction is thus made that group members will utilize the act of help-seeking strategically, to attempt to challenge salient negative meta-stereotypes. This is predicted to occur independently of levels of material need.This hypothesis is tested across seven experiments. Study 1 provides initial exploration of the concept, and suggests that the threat associated with help-seeking depends on how participants categorize themselves (and thus the help-giver). Studies 2 and 3 provide the first explicit manipulations of meta-stereotype salience in the thesis. Study 2 reveals that encouraging female participants to consider the idea that males perceive females as dependent leads to higher levels of perceived meta-stereotype unfairness than a purely interpersonal context, and that these perceptions of unfairness lead to reduced help-seeking from the outgroup. Study 3 strengthens this finding by shifting to an alternative identity (nationality: Scottish vs. English). It shows that, for participants who act strongly as Scots during the study, being encouraged to consider the idea that the English perceive the Scots as handout-dependent leads to less outgroup help-seeking than either an interpersonal context or an intergroup context without a salient meta-stereotype. This suggests salient meta-stereotypes have effects on help-seeking beyond those produced by a simple intergroup context. Study 4 shows these help-seeking-related effects can be obtained via a more naturalistic meta-stereotype manipulation, and also examines the relevance of the helpers’ group membership. Finally, Studies 5, 6 and 7 provide a more in-depth analysis of the key concept of strategy. Together, these last three studies show group members take heed of the contents of salient meta-stereotypes, and tailor their strategic stereotype-challenging behaviours depending on these specific contents. Moreover, these studies indicate that the nature of the meta-stereotype contents can sometimes increase participants’ help-seeking. The General Discussion summarises the thesis’ main findings and considers their contribution to the help-seeking literature and the real world.

This study identified the accuracy with which local career and technical education (CTE) administrators perceive the stereotypes of CTE students, teachers, and programs held by Virginia Department of Education administrators. In order to measure the aforementioned meta-accuracy: (a) the stereotypes of CTE students, teachers, and programs held by (VDOE) administrators were determined, (b) the meta-stereotypes of local CTE administrators regarding the stereotypes of CTE programs, students, and teachers held by VDOE administrators were established, and (c) the stereotypes and the meta-stereotypes were compared. Data analyzed revealed that some of the traditional stereotypical descriptors of CTE teachers, students, and programs were held by VDOE administrators. Some stereotypes of note were: (a) CTE students do not plan to go to college, (b) CTE students are good with concrete concepts, (c) CTE students enjoy nonacademic classes more than academic ones, (d) CTE students are not from middle to upper socioeconomic class, (e) CTE teachers have lots of on-the-job experience, and (f) CTE programs are isolated from the rest of the school. Local CTE administrators possessed meta-stereotypes that indicated that VDOE administrators would stereotype CTE students as: (a) not being leaders in school, (b) not having college-educated parents, (c) being motivated by material rewards, (d) enjoying nonacademic classes more than academic ones, (e) being easily influenced by peers, and (f) not being from middle to upper socio-economic class. Local CTE administrators had meta-stereotypes that indicated VDOE administrators would stereotype CTE teachers as: (a) being more of a practitioner than a theorist, (b) being good with concrete concepts, and (c) not possessing master's degrees. Local CTE administrators had meta-stereotypes that indicated VDOE administrators would stereotype CTE programs as: (a) being a good return on investment, (b) providing for the education of the whole person, (c) being beneficial to all students, (d) being expensive to maintain, (e) having enrollment typically of students from blue-collar or agriculture background, and (f) being for students who work better with their hands. Local CTE administrators were accurately able to predict the way VDOE administrators would respond to the statements depicting stereotypes of CTE students, teachers, and programs for 45 of the 62 items. Conversely, they were not able to accurately predict 17 out of the 62 statements. Overall, the accuracy of the meta-stereotypes (meta-accuracy) of local CTE administrators varied depending upon what was being measured. The meta-accuracy in relation to CTE teachers was highest (11 out of the 12 items) and the meta-accuracy was lowest in relation to CTE programs (10 out of 17 items). In relation to CTE students, local CTE administrators were accurate in predicting 24 out of the 33 items. / Ph. D.

本研究では，外集団から内集団に対して抱かれているイメージに関する認知（メタステレオタイプ）の働きに焦点を当て，そのような集団間葛藤の問題における新たなモデルや低減方法について議論した。 / Unfriendliness towards members of an out-group is considered to be shaped not only by an individual's beliefs about members of the out-group (stereotypes), but also by an individual's beliefs about how members of the out-group view his or her own group (meta-stereotypes). This dissertation investigated the role of negative meta-stereotypes in intergroup interactions and suggested factors that can change negative attitudes towards the members of the out-group. / 博士(心理学) / Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology / 同志社大学 / Doshisha University