Em geral, os desenvolvimentos na literatura e em códigos de construção voltados para projeto sísmico tem grande ênfase em edifícios civis e seu respectivo comportamento dinâmico. Entretanto, em diversas ocasiões, faz-se necessário o projeto e dimensionamento de equipamentos ou estruturas de geometria e comportamento distintos dos de um edifício usual. Contudo, são encontradas em diferentes normas afirmações e advertências de que as informações lá contidas aplicam-se inteiramente a essas estruturas ou construções similares. Nesses documentos, emitidos por vários países para aplicação em seus respectivos territórios, são estabelecidos procedimentos e métodos. Ademais, opções para análise são propostas, com base em diversos fatores como o tipo de estrutura resistente, a função da edificação, os custos relacionados, a importância da obra e as características geológicas do local de construção. Nesse trabalho, foi realizado o estudo de estruturas para máquinas de fabricação de papel, de modo analítico e por meio do método dos elementos finitos, com respeito a projeto sísmico. Esses equipamentos consistem de pórticos metálicos suportados por estruturas civis, e que suportam rotores por cuja superfície passa o papel durante operação. Os métodos usualmente presentes em normas, força horizontal equivalente, análise espectral e análise transiente com históricos de acelerações no tempo foram aplicados, e suas respostas comparadas e comentadas. Buscou-se como resultado uma melhor compreensão das considerações e dos métodos mais adequados para essas estruturas, assim como das eventuais variações ocasionadas pela sua aplicação. / Usually, the progresses in codes and technical literature regarding seismic analyses are aimed at civil buildings and their dynamic behavior. Nevertheless, frequently, the dimensioning and construction of equipments or structures with distinct geometry and behavior are required. In numerous codes, though, statements that the comprised information should be fully applied solely to buildings and similar constructions are found. In these codes, issued by many countries for the application in their respective territories, there are procedures and criteria established for seismic design. Moreover, applicable analysis methods are presented, and the selection of which one to employ is based on details as type of resistant systems, intended occupation, rebuilding costs, significance and the geological features of the erection site. In this work, the study of structures for paper production machines is presented, regarding seismic analysis and employing analytical and the finite element methods. These machines consist of metallic frames supported by civil structures and supporting rotors, whose surfaces are in contact with the paper web. The methods usually found in codes, equivalent lateral force, spectrum analysis and transient with acceleration time history were considered, and their results compared and commented afterwards. A better understanding of the more appropriate methods and input parameters for these structures was intended, as well as of any eventual deviation caused by their use.

Este trabalho aborda ligações semi-rígidas com o objetivo de verificar a influência da flexibilidade na análise de estruturas metálicas, com o propósito de apresentar um modelo que represente o real comportamento das conexões assumindo uma situação intermediária entre totalmente rígida e totalmente flexível. Os procedimentos empregados para determinar as propriedades destas conexões estão embasados nos métodos descritos pelo anexo J do Eurocode 3 e recomendações do BCSA/SCI. Com intuito de automatizar o cálculo das conexões semi-rígidas foi implementado um programa computacional que fornece as propriedades necessárias das ligações entre vigas e pilares através da entrada de dados geométricos e especificações do material empregado. São abordadas ligações soldadas e ligações parafusadas com chapa de extremidade.O trabalho apresenta, ainda, uma avaliação da redistribuição de solicitações nas estruturas de aço. Fazendo a análise de um pórtico plano empregando molas rotacionais nos nós de encontro entre vigas e pilares inserindo a rigidez rotacional obtida através dos procedimentos numéricos apresentados neste trabalho. Esta mesma estrutura foi analisada da maneira tradicional, ou seja, considerando nós rígidos no encontro entre vigas e pilares. Através da analogia entre os resultados obtidos pelas duas análises é possível visualizar a diferença entre a distribuição nas solicitações. Dessa forma, é possível verificar a influência da rigidez das ligações na análise das estruturas metálicas. / This work approaches semi-rigid connections with the purpose to verify the influence of connections in the analysis of steel structures, with the intention to present a model that represents the real behavior of the connections assuming an intermediate situation between totally rigid and totally pinned. The used procedures to determine the properties of these connections are based in the described methods for the Annex J of the Eurocode 3 and BCSA/SCI. With intention to speed the calculations of the semi-rigid connections a computational program was implemented that supplies to the necessary properties of the connections between beams and columns through the geometric data entry and specifications of the employed material. They are boarded welded connections and connections bolted with extend end plate. The work presents, still, an evaluation of the new distribution of loads in the steel structures. Making the analysis of a plain frame using rotational springs between beams and columns inserting the gotten rotational rigidity through the presented numerical procedures in this work. This same structure was analyzed in the traditional way, that is, considering rigid we in the meeting between beams and columns. Through the analogy it enters the results gotten for the two analyses is possible to visualize the difference enters the distribution in the requests. Of this form, it is possible to verify the influence of flexibility in the analysis of the metallic structures.

<p> This thesis contributes significantly towards the development of a robust algorithm for design sensitivity analysis and the optimization of microwave structures. Based on the frequency-domain finite-element method, the approach provides accurate sensitivity information using both 2-D and 3-D formulations. It also significantly accelerates the optimization process.</p> <p> The design sensitivity analysis method greatly influences the efficiency and accuracy of gradient-based optimization by providing the response gradient (response Jacobians) for the whole range of parameter values. However, common commercial electromagnetic simulators provide only specific engineering responses, such as Z- or S-parameters. No sensitivity information is made available for further exploration of the design-parameter space. It is common to compute the design sensitivities from the response themselves using finite-difference or higher-order approximations at the response level. Consequently, for each design parameter of interest, at least one additional full-wave analysis is performed. However, when the number of design parameters becomes large, the simulation time becomes prohibitive for electromagnetic design procedures.</p> <p> The self-adjoint sensitivity analysis (SASA) is so far the most efficient way to extract the sensitivity information for the network parameters with the finite-element method. As an improvement of the adjoint-variable method (AVM), it eliminates the additional (adjoint) system analyses. With one single full-wave analysis, the sensitivities with respect to all design parameters are computed. This significantly improves the efficiency of the sensitivity computations. Through our proposed method, the finite-difference frequency-domain self-adjoint sensitivity analysis (FDFD-SASA), the process is further improved by eliminating the need for exporting the system matrix, thus improving both compatibility and computation time. The only requirement for integrating the sensitivity solver with the commercial EM simulators is the ability to access the field solution at the user-defined grid points. The sensitivity information is obtained by simple manipulation of the field solution as a post-process and hence, it adds little or no overhead to the simulation time.</p> <p> We explore the feasibility of implementing our newly proposed method using field solutions from a frequency-domain commercial solver HFSS v 11. We confirm the accuracy of the FDFD-SASA for shape parameters of metallic structures. Both 2-D and 3-D examples are presented, where the reference results are provided through the traditional finite-difference approximations. Also, the efficiency of the FDFD-SASA is validated by a filter design example, exploiting gradient-based optimization algorithm.</p> / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Le patrimoine ferroviaire français comporte de nombreux ponts métalliques, principalement construits au cours de la seconde moitié du XIXème siècle. Ces ouvrages d'art sont donc en service depuis plus d’un siècle et nécessitent une politique de maintenance adaptée. En collaboration avec SNCF Réseau, cette thèse de doctorat apporte des éléments de compréhension sur le comportement mécanique des assemblages rivetés à chaud sous sollicitations monotones et cycliques. Une stratégie expérimentale a été mise en oeuvre afin d'identifier les mécanismes de ruine des assemblages rivetés. Dans un premier temps, le matériau objet de cette étude, un fer puddlé, a été extrait d'éléments provenant du pont sur l'Adour à Bayonne (1864-2013). Ce matériau a été notamment caractérisé sous chargements monotones et cycliques ; sa fragilité, son anisotropie et son comportement dispersif ont été mis en évidence et analysés. Des outils numériques ont été développés pour l’étude microscopique de cette famille de matériaux. Des éprouvettes rivetées de type détail constructif ont par la suite été conçues, fabriquées et testées sous chargements monotones et cycliques. Un scénario précis du fonctionnement et de ruine d'un assemblage mono-rivet en double recouvrement a pu être identifié. Pour cela, les influences des caractéristiques matériau, des concentrations de contraintes, du cisaillement du rivet et de l'effort de serrage ont été étudiées. Les résultats de ce travail, comparés à ceux de la littérature et aux standards de dimensionnement des structures métalliques, montrent la complémentarité d'une étude à plusieurs échelles (comportement matériau et étude locale du fonctionnement des assemblages) dans le but de comprendre et estimer le comportement des structures rivetées anciennes. / Numerous metallic bridges can be found in the French railway heritage. Since a majority of these structures was built during the second half of the 19th century, they have been in service for over a hundred years and need an adapted maintenance policy.These doctoral thesis, done in collaboration with SNCF Réseau, improves the understanding of the mechanical behaviour of hot riveted assemblies under monotonic and cyclic loadings. An experimental strategy was proposed and carried out in order to identify the failure mechanisms of riveted assemblies. First, the studied material, a puddled iron, was obtained from recovered elements from the bridge over the Adour river in Bayonne (1864-2013). Mechanical testing and characterisation was performed under monotonic and cyclic loadings. Puddled iron’s brittle, anisotropic and scattered behaviour was observed and analysed. In-house software applications were developed in order to study this kind of material. Additionally, hot riveted specimens (constructional details) were designed, manufactured and tested under monotonic and cyclic loadings. A precise working (and failure) scenario of the double shear mono-rivet assembly was identified. The influence of the material’s behaviour, stress concentrators, shearing of the rivet and clamping force of the rivet were studied. The results obtained during these research works, compared to the ones found in academic literature as well as construction norms for metallic structures, showed the importance and complementarity of a multi-scale approach (material behaviour and local study of assemblies) in order to understand and assess the behaviour of ancient riveted structures.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία μελετήθηκε και προσομοιώθηκε η επίδραση των μεταβατικών φαινομένων σε μεταλλικές κατασκευές. Συγκεκριμένα μελετήθηκαν οι επιπτώσεις της πτώσης ενός κεραυνού σε ένα πλοίο. Για την πραγματοποίηση αυτής της μελέτης χρησιμοποιήθηκε το πρόγραμμα προσομοίωσης emp3 , το οποίο έχει κατασκευασθεί από την εταιρία field precision και είναι κατάλληλο για τη μελέτη τέτοιων φαινομένων. Το emp3 στηρίζεται στη μέθοδο των πεπερασμένων στοιχείων στο πεδίο του χρόνου (FETD-FINITE-ELEMENT-TIME-DOMAIN) και καταλήγει σε συμπεράσματα με πλήρη επίλυση των εξισώσεων του Maxwell χρησιμοποιώντας μια ψευδογλώσσα επιπέδου assembly .Στο υποπρόγραμμα mesh.exe σχεδιάστηκε ένα πλοίο και το περιβάλλον του και στη συνέχεια δημιουργήθηκε το αρχείο .ein στο οποίο χωρίστηκε η διάταξη σε διάφορες περιοχές ανάλογα με τις ηλεκτρομαγνητικές ιδιότητες της καθεμίας, με σκοπό να παρατηρήσουμε τα ηλεκτρομαγνητικά πεδία που δημιουργεί το μεταβατικό φαινόμενο (κεραυνικό πλήγμα) στις τρείς διαστάσεις. Τέλος, τρέξαμε το αρχείο .ein στο emp3.exe και παραθέσαμε τα αποτελέσματα της προσομοίωσης που προέκυψαν τόσο από το υποπρόγραμμα vemp3.exe όσο από το υποπρόγραμμα probe.exe και εξαγάγαμε κάποια συνολικά συμπεράσματα. Στο πρώτο Κεφάλαιο θα γίνει αναφορά στο φυσικό φαινόμενο του κεραυνού και συγκεκριμένα στους τρόπους δημιουργίας του,στις παραμέτρους του καθώς και στους παράγοντες που τον επηρεάζουν. Στο δεύτερο Κεφάλαιο θα γίνει ανάλυση των διεργασιών που ακολουθούν την πτώση ενός κεραυνού σε ένα πλοίο και συγκεκριμένα στις επαγόμενες τάσεις και στα παραγόμενα ηλεκτρομαγνητικά πεδία καθώς και στις βλάβες που προκαλούνται τόσο στο πλοίο όσο και στα εξαρτήματα του. Στο τρίτο Κεφάλαιο θα γίνει ανάλυση του προγράμματος προσομοίωσης emp3 ,της μεθόδου στην οποία στηρίζεται ,της ψευδογλώσσας που χρησιμοποιεί και του έτοιμου παραδείγματος bdeflect με σκοπό την κατανόηση της διαδικασίας προσομοίωσης και των αποτελεσμάτων. Στο τέταρτο Κεφάλαιο θα γίνει η παρουσίαση της διαδικασίας προσομοίωσης και των αποτελεσμάτων. Συγκεκριμένα παρατείθεται η κατασκευή της γεωμετρίας του πλοίου και του περιβάλλοντος του,ο χωρισμός της συνολικής διάταξης σε περιοχές με διαφορετικά ηλεκτρομαγνητικά χαρακτηριστικά, η εισαγωγή του κώδικα στο emp3.exe τα αποτελέσματα που εξήχθησαν στα vemp3.exe και probe.exe καθώς και ορισμένα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από τη διεξαγωγή της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας. / In this dissertation the effect of the transient phenomena in metallic structures was studied and simulated.Specifically. were studied the effects of a lighting stroke on a ship. In order to carry out this study,was used the simulation program emp3, which is manufactured by the company field precision and is suitable for the study of such phenomena. The emp3 program is based on the method FETD-FINITE-ELEMENT-TIME-DOMAIN and concludes with complete resolution of Maxwell's equations using a pseudocode level assembly.In the subprogram mesh.exe was designed the ship and its environment and then was created the .ein file, in which the construction was divided in different regions depending on the electromagnetic characteristics of each area, in order to observe the fields that were created by the transient phenomenon (lighting stroke), in three dimensions. Finally, we ran the file .ein in emp3.exe and presented the simulation results, which were obtained from both the subprogram vemp3.exe and the subprogram probe.exe and drew some overall conclusions. In the first chapter there will be a reference to the natural phenomenon of lightning strike and specifically to the ways of it's creation, its parameters and the factors that influence it.Ιn the second chapter there is the analysis of the processes, which follow the fall of a lightning stroke on a ship and specifically the induced voltages generated electromagnetic fields and also the harms caused both to the ship and it's components. In the third chapter there is the analysis of the simulation program emp3, the method which it is based on, the pseudocode which is used and the already existed example bdeflect in order to understande the process simulation and results.In the fourth chapter the simulation process and the results are given. Specifically, the construction of the geometry of the ship and its environment, the separation of the total provision in areas with different magnetic characteristics, the insertion of the code in emp3.exe,the results exported to vemp3.exe and probe.exe and some conclusions drawn during this thesis are presented.

Aerospace structures comprising of metals and composites are exposed to extreme loading and environmental conditions which necessitates regular inspection and maintenance to verify and monitor overall structural integrity. The timely and accurate detection, characterization and monitoring of structural cracking, corrosion, delaminating, material degradation and other types of damage are of major concern in the operational environment. Along with these, stringent requirements of safety and operational reliability have lead to evolutionary methods for evaluation of structural integrity. As a result, conventional nondestructive evaluation methods have moved towards a new concept, Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). SHM provides in-situ information a bout the occurrence of damage if any, location and severity of damage and residual life of the structure and also helps in improving the safety, reliability and confidence levels of critical engineering structures. While the concepts underlying SHM are well understood, development of methods is still in a nascent stage which requires extensive research that is challenging and has been the main motivating factor for undertaking the work reported in the thesis. Under the scope of the investigations carried out in this thesis, an integrated approach using Ultrasonic (active) and Acoustic Emission (passive) methods has been explored for SHM of metallic and composite plate structures using a distributed array of surface bonded circular piezoelectric wafer active sensors(PWAS). In ultrasonic method, PWAS is used for actuation and reception of Lamb waves in plate structures. The damage detection is based on the interaction of waves with defects resulting in reflection, mode conversion and scattering. In acoustic emission (AE) technique, the same sensor is used to pick up the stress waves generated by initiation or growth of defects or damage. Thus, both the active and passive damage detection methods are used in this work for detection, location and characterization of defects and damage in metallic and composite plates with complex geometries and structural discontinuities. And, thus the strategy adopted is to use time-frequency analysis and time reversal technique to extract the information from Lamb wave signals for damage detection and a geodesic based Lamb wave approach for location of the damage in the structure. To start with experiments were conducted on aluminum plates to study the interaction of Lamb waves with cracks oriented at different angles and on a titanium turbine blade of complex geometry with a fine surface crack. Further, the interaction of Lamb wave modes with multiple layer delaminations in glass fiber epoxy composite laminates was studied. The data acquired from these experiments yielded complex sets of signals which were not easily discern able for obtaining the information required regarding the defects and damage. So, to obtain a basic understanding of the wave patterns, Spectral finite element method has been employed for simulation of wave propagation in composite beams with damages like delamination and material degradation. Following this, time-frequency analysis of a number of simulated and experimental signals due to elastic wave scattering from defects and damage were performed using wavelet transform (WT) and Hilbert-Huang transform(HHT).And, a comparison of their performances in the context of quantifying the damages has given detailed insight into the problem of identifying localized damages, dispersion of multi-frequency non-stationary signals after their interaction with different types of defects and damage, finally leading to quantification. Conventional Lamb wave based damage detection methods look for the presence of defects and damage in a structure by comparing the signal obtained with the baseline signal acquired under healthy conditions. The environmental conditions like change in temperature can alter the Lamb wave signals and when compared with baseline signals may lead to false damage prediction. So, in order to make Lamb wave based damage detection baseline free, in the present work, the time reversal technique has been utilized. And, experiments were conducted on metallic and composite plates to study the time reversal behavior ofA0 andS0Lamb wave modes. Damage in the form of a notch was introduced in an aluminum plate to study the changes in the characteristics of the time reversed Lamb wave modes experimentally. This experimental study showed that there is no change in the shape of the time reversed Lamb wave in the presence of defect implying no breakage of time reversibility. Time reversal experiments were further carried out on a carbon/epoxy composite T-pull specimen representing a typical structure. And, the specimen was subjected to a tensile loading in a Universal testing machine. PWAS sensor measurements were carried out at no load as also during different stages of delamination due to tensile loading. Application of time reversed A 0 and S0 modes for both healthy and delaminated specimens and studying the change in shape of the time reversed Lamb wave signals has resulted in successful detection of the presence of delamination. The aim of this study has been to show the effectiveness of Lamb wave time reversal technique for damage detection in health monitoring applications. The next step in SHM is to identify the damage location after the confirmation of presence of damage in the structure. Wave based acoustic damage detection methods (UT and AE) employing triangulation technique are not suitable for locating damage in a structure which has complicated geometry and contains structural discontinuities. And, the problem further gets compounded if the material of the structure is anisotropic warranting complex analytical velocity models. In this work, a novel geodesic approach using Lamb waves is proposed to locate the AE source/damage in plate like structures. The approach is based on the fact that the wave takes minimum energy path to travel from the source to any other point in the connected domain. The geodesics are computed numerically on the meshed surface of the structure using Dijkstra’s algorithm. By propagating the waves in reverse virtually from these sensors along the geodesic path and by locating the first inter section point of these waves, one can get the AE source/damage location. Experiments have been conducted on metallic and composite plate specimens of simple and complex geometry to validate this approach. And, the results obtained using this approach has demonstrated the advantages for a practicable source location solution with arbitrary surfaces containing finite discontinuities. The drawback of Dijkstra’s algorithm is that the geodesics are allowed to travel along the edges of the triangular mesh and not inside them. To overcome this limitation, the simpler Dijkstra’s algorithm has been replaced by a Fast Marching Method (FMM) which allows geodesic path to travel inside the triangular domain. The results obtained using FMM showed that one can accurately compute the geodesic path taken by the elastic waves in composite plates from the AE source/damage to the sensor array, thus obtaining a more accurate damage location. Finally, a new triangulation technique based on geodesic concept is proposed to locate damage in metallic and composite plates. The performances of triangulaton technique are then compared with the geodesic approach in terms of damage location results and their suitability to health monitoring applications is studied.

CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / INCT - Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia / O Monitoramento da Integridade Estrutural baseado na técnica da Impedância Eletromecânica permite a detecção de alterações em estruturas, possibilitando a identificação e o reparo de danos. A técnica baseia-se em obter assinaturas de impedância da estrutura monitorada, em diversos momentos da operação da mesma. Possíveis danos são identificados pela comparação matemática entre as assinaturas obtidas. Sendo uma técnica bastante precisa, variações na temperatura e efeitos externos como vibrações e campos eletromagnéticos atuantes sobre a estrutura monitorada representam perturbações que tendem a gerar erros no processo de monitoramento. Para tornar o processo de diagnóstico mais robusto, torna-se necessário dissociar os verdadeiros efeitos de alteração estrutural daqueles que são considerados interferências externas. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo mostrar um estudo de caso, usando um painel aeronáutico de alumínio como corpo de prova, em que a influência dos fatores não previstos na técnica da impedância é identificada e caracterizada por meio de modelos estatísticos. Para realizar estas análises, foram executados experimentos utilizando transdutores piezelétricos acoplados ao referido painel. Os experimentos submeteram o painel à variação de temperatura e à inclusão de danos simulados. A partir dos dados de assinatura de impedância obtidos, comprovou-se a eficiência dos modelos estatísticos elaborados, sendo possível tanto separar e identificar a influência do dano simulado e da temperatura quanto estabelecer um intervalo de confiança nas análises desenvolvidas. Com esses resultados, é possível indicar que a técnica de análise estatística proposta torna-se uma útil ferramenta de pré-processamento de dados em aplicações de monitoramento de estruturas baseados no método da impedância eletromecânica. / Structural Integrity Monitoring based on the Electromechanical Impedance technique allows the detection of changes in structures, allowing the identification and repair of damages. The technique relies on obtaining impedance signatures from the monitored structure, at various moments of its operation. Possible damages are identified by the mathematical comparison between the signatures obtained. As a very precise technique, variations in temperature and external effects such as vibrations and electromagnetic fields acting on the monitored structure represent perturbations that tend to generate errors in the monitoring process. To make the diagnostic process more robust, it becomes necessary to decouple the true structural alteration effects from those that are considered external interferences. The present work aims to show a case study using an aluminum aeronautical panel as a test body, in which the influence of factors not predicted in the impedance technique is identified and characterized by means of statistical models. To perform these analyzes, experiments were performed using piezoelectric transducers coupled to said panel. The experiments subjected the panel to temperature variation and to the inclusion of simulated damages. From the impedance signature data obtained, the efficiency of the elaborated statistical models was verified, being possible to separate and identify the influence of the simulated damage and the temperature, as well as to establish a confidence interval in the developed analyzes. With these results, it is possible to indicate that the proposed statistical analysis technique becomes a useful tool for data preprocessing in structural monitoring applications based on the electromechanical impedance method. / Dissertação (Mestrado)