It is recognised that the environment to which the fetus is exposed in utero, after implantation, can program longer term health outcomes and alter the possibility of disease onset later in life. It is becoming evident that the environment, to which the pre-implantation embryo is exposed, can also affect the ability of the embryo to form a viable pregnancy as well as altering fetal growth. Despite this understanding, little is known about the mechanism by which the environment can ‘program’ the pre-implantation embryo. Using model stress systems, either ammonium or DMO in the culture medium, this thesis addressed the hypothesis that suboptimal environmental conditions may alter mitochondrial homeostasis and function and/or epigenetic parameters and these are the possible mechanisms responsible for the altered fetal outcomes seen. While common measures of embryo quality such as on time blastocyst development were not affected by either stress, more in-depth investigations found several striking differences. Exposure to DMO significantly decreased blastocyst cell number and allocation to the inner cell mass and trophectoderm, as well as increased blastocyst apoptosis. After exposure to DMO, blastocysts were transferred to pseudopregnant recipients, and both the ability of the embryos to implant and develop into a fetus was impaired as well as fetal weights and crown rump length were significantly reduced indicative of altered growth. Similar results have also been demonstrated after pre-implantation embryos are exposed to ammonium in vitro. Exposure to ammonium during pre-implantation embryo development also altered placental gene expression and function, indicating a possible mechanism of the observed reduced fetal growth parameters. Interestingly, the pre-implantation embryo appears to be the most vulnerable to an environmental stress during the pre-compaction stage, in particular the zygote to 2-cell transition, as exposure to either stress during this stage alone shows similar perturbations to if the stress was present for the entire pre-implantation developmental period. At this early stage of embryo development, mitochondria are the sole energy generators and are therefore critical for embryo function. This study determined that either ammonium or DMO stress exposure, during the first cleavage division, significantly perturbed mitochondrial distribution, membrane potential and ATP/ADP levels. Removal of the stress did not allow these effects to be completely reversed, implicating mitochondrial perturbations as a possible mechanism behind altered embryo programming. During pre-implantation embryo development there are also significant epigenetic changes which are vital for re-programming the embryonic genome. Both in vitro stresses significantly altered DNA de-methylation at the 2-cell stage and reduced blastocyst gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b), which are responsible for de novo methylation. Together these data highlight the importance of pre-implantation embryo development as a critical period of growth in which the presence of environmental stress can have an impact on metabolic homeostasis and critical epigenetic events that may be responsible for the downstream effects seen on fetal growth. These results are not only important for assisted reproductive therapy, where the presence of an in vitro laboratory stress can potentially alter embryo programming, but are also important for in vivo embryo development where the health and wellbeing of the mother can also potentially influence the in utero environment and thus the long-term health outcomes of her child. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1522143 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, 2010

Short-term toxicity tests utilizing mitochondrial and microsomal metabolism were developed and applied to a series of eight quinones. In the mitochondrial assay, the degree to which test compounds inhibited mitochondrial respiration varied from an EC50 of 9 μM to l25 μM. In the microsomal assay, the maximum percent increase over control oxygen consumption rates elicited by the quinones ranged from eight percent to 837 percent. The ability of the compounds to stimulate microsomal oxygen uptake reflects their capability to redox cycle and form reactive oxygen species. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the relationship between the rate of quinone redox cycling and the extent of microsomal lipid peroxidation, a possible toxic insult associated with reactive oxygen species. Results of the mitochondrial and microsomal assays were statistically correlated with several quinone physicochemical parameters and qualitatively compared to reduction potential. The biological response observed in both test systems appeared to be most strongly influenced by the reduction potential of the quinone and biomechanisms of action were suggested based on this relationship. To assess the ability of the mitochondrial and microsomal assays to indicate toxicity of the quinonoid compounds, results were statistically correlated with literature-derived toxicity data. It was concluded that the mitochondrial assay appears to be a valid indicator of acute toxicity, while the microsomal assay better portends the potential for chronic toxicity. / Master of Science

All animal cells maintain cell size homeostasis, where cell growth (increase in size) is balanced with proliferation (reduction in size via cell division). Yet, different cell types have different sizes and there are physiologically relevant situations where animal cells undergo major cell size changes. So how is cell size regulated? And why is cell size regulated? Are there specific cellular processes that have different functionality in different sized cells? This thesis investigates these questions from the perspective of cellular metabolism. Using a Cyclin dependent kinase 1 knockout mouse model with different degrees of hepatocytes enlargement, gene expression levels were correlated with cell size in vivo. This revealed that the relative expression of mitochondrial and lipid biosynthesis genes are downregulated with increasing cell size. However, mitochondrial content of the liver samples was not decreased, suggesting that cell functions and cell contents scale differently with cell size. To better investigate how mitochondrial functions scale with cell size in non-mutant cells, a novel and high throughput flow cytometry based single-cell analysis method called CoSRA was developed. Using fluorescence mitochondrial probes CoSRA revealed that, while mitochondrial content increases linearly with cell size, mitochondrial membrane potential is decreased in the very smallest and the largest cells. These effects were independent of cell cycle and all animal cell types examined displayed similar effects. Similar nonlinearity was observed in mitochondrial respiration. Furthermore, cell-to-cell variability in mitochondrial membrane potential was minimised in cells which are close to the median cell size of the whole population. The cell size dependence of mitochondrial functions was regulated by mitochondrial dynamics. It was also investigated if mitochondrial functions or lipid biosynthesis are capable of regulating cell size in human cell culture models. Various mitochondrial inhibitions increased cell size by reducing proliferation. Similar results were seen with inhibitions on lipid biosynthesis and especially with inhibitions of mevalonate pathway. Systematic dissection of the mevalonate pathway revealed that protein geranylgeranylation is required for maintaining normal cell size and proliferation ratio. Geranylgeranylation of the recycling endosome regulating protein RAB11 was identified to be at least partially responsible for the cell size regulation by the mevalonate pathway. Furthermore, the link from the mevalonate pathway to RAB11 was found to regulate basal autophagic flux, thus providing a novel connection from lipid biosynthesis to other growth regulating processes. In conclusion, this thesis provides evidence for cell size dependent metabolism, where mitochondrial functions do not increase linearly with cell size. This provides conceptual insights into organelle scaling with cell size and a potential mechanism for maintenance of cell size homeostasis. In addition, mitochondria and lipid synthesis are identified as critical processes for normal cell size homeostasis.

Utilization of iron by hemoglobin-producing cells is highly efficient. The acquisition of iron from plasma requires the binding of diferric transferrin (Tf) to its cognate receptor (Tf-R) on the erythroid cell membrane, followed by internalization of the Tf - Tf-R complexes via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Through a poorly understood mechanism, iron is targeted to mitochondria, the site of heme biosynthesis. We believe that a direct interaction between iron-containing endosomes and mitochondria is essential for iron transfer to mitochondria and its efficient incorporation into heme. / In order to illustrate the interaction between endosomes and mitochondria, we have employed flow cytometry. Flow cytometry analysis of reticulocytes (erythrocyte precursors which still synthesize hemoglobin) stained with fluorescent dyes specific to mitochondria and endosomes revealed three distinct populations: mitochondria, endosomes and a population labeled with both dyes. This double-labeled population suggests a population composed of endosomes associated with mitochondria. Using non-fluorescent diferric-Tf, we were able to remove the double population, leaving only the endosomal and the mitochondrial population. This finding has confirmed that the double population is the result of the interaction between the two organelles. / Additionally, we established a cell-free assay consisting of fluorescent mitochondria and endosomes isolated from erythroid cells. Using confocal microscopy, we demonstrated a colocalization between the two organelles. We repeated the assay using fluorescent mitochondria and endosomes isolated from HeLa spinner cells. Using the mitochondrial uncoupler CCCP, we were able to significantly reduce the colocalization between the two organelles, indicating that the interaction between the organelles is specific and that the mitochondrial potential is a requirement for organellar interaction. / Based on our results from flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, we conclude that a specific and direct interaction exists between the two organelles.

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INTRODUCTION: The detection of a second inorganic phosphate (Pi) resonance, a possible marker of mitochondrial content in vivo, using phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P- MRS) at 3T is technically challenging, which may prevent its reproducible quantification. PURPOSE: To determine the reproducibility of resting alkaline inorganic phosphate (Pialk) measurement using 31P-MRS in human skeletal muscle at 3 tesla (T). METHODS: Resting 31P- MRS of the quadriceps muscles was acquired on two separate visits, within seven days, in 13 healthy, sedentary to moderately active young adults using a whole-body 3T MR system. Measurement variability related to coil position, shimming procedure, and spectral analysis were also quantified. 31P-MRS data were acquired with a 31P/1H dual-tuned surface coil positioned on the quadriceps using a pulse-acquire sequence. Test-retest absolute and relative reproducibility were analyzed using coefficient of variation (CV) and intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC), respectively. RESULTS: Pialk demonstrated a within-subject reproducibility marginally greater then the 10% cutoff (CV: 10.6 ± 5.4%; ICC: 0.80), but still appropriate given its small concentration in relation to other 31P metabolites. Proximo-distal change in coil positioning along the length of the quadriceps induced large variability in Pialk quantification (CV: 21.1%). In contrast, measurement variability due to repeated shims on consecutive scans from the same muscle sample (CV: 6.6%), and the automated spectral processing procedure, were minor (CV: 2.3%). Both metrics of absolute and relative reproducibility of Pialk were of similar magnitude to other well-resolved metabolites (e.g., phosphocreatine, Pi, and phosphodiester). CONCLUSION: Using multiple metrics, the present study established the high reproducibility of Pialk quantification by 31P-MRS using a surface coil on the quadriceps muscle at 3T. However, large variability in Pialk quantification can originate from positioning the coil on the most distal part of the quadriceps, which should be avoided due to shimming inhomogeneity.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T20:49:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-02-27 / Objetivos:Avaliar o efeito da varicocele na integridade do DNA nuclear,na atividade mitocondrial,na peroxidação lipídica e na integridade acrossômica dos espermatozóides.Métodos:as amostras foram obtidas e analisadas de acordo com os parâmetros da OMS(1999) e morfologia segundo critério estrito de Kruger.O grupo de estudo incluiu 30 homens com varicocele grauII ou III e o grupo controle incluiu 32 homens sem varicocele.A integridade do DNA nuclear dos espermatozóides foi avaliada pelo ensaio Cometa alcalino, e as células foram classificadas de acordo com a intensidade de dano no DNA:grau I(alta integridade do DNA),grau II(DNA ainda íntegro ou em início de fragmentação),grau III(DNA moderadamente fragmentado)e grau IV(DNA altamente fragmentado).A atividade mitocondrial foi avaliada pelo método colorimétrico proposto por Hrudka(1987),e as células foram classificadas em:classe I(mitocôndrias todas ativas),classe II (mais de 50 por cento de mitocôndrias ativas),classe III(menos de 50 por cento de mitocôndrias ativas)e classe IV(mitocôndrias todas inativas).A peroxidação lipídica foi determinada usando-se o método descrito por Ohkawa(1979),que se baseia na determinação de MDA devido à sua reação com o TBA, e o nível de peroxidação lipídica foi descrito em nanogramas de TBARS/mL de sêmen.A integridade do acrossoma foi avaliada através da sonda fluorescente PNA(Peannut Agglutinin)-FITC (Fluorescein isothiocyanite)conjugada, e o resultado foi expresso em porcentagem de espermatozóides com acrossoma íntegro.Resultados: quanto à integridade do DNA,o grupo de homens com varicocele apresentou uma menor porcentagem de espermatozóides com DNA nuclear íntegro(grau II, p=0,040).Não houve diferença na porcentagem de células grau I,III e IV.Quanto à atividade mitocondrial, o grupo de homens com varicocele apresentou uma porcentagem maior de espermatozóides com mitocôndrias inativas(classe III, p=0,020)e uma porcentagem menor de espermatozóides com mitocôndrias ativas(classe I, p=0,005).Não houve diferença na porcentagem de células classe II e IV.Quanto à integridade acrossômica, o grupo de homens com varicocele apresentou uma menor porcentagem de espermatozóides com acrossoma íntegro(p=0,0002).Por fim, com relação ao nível de peroxidação lipídica,não foi encontrada nenhuma diferença estatisticamente significante entre os grupos com e sem varicocele.Conclusões: Neste estudo, homens com varicocele apresentaram um aumento nas taxas de fragmentação de DNA e uma redução na atividade mitocondrial e na integridade acrossômica dos espermatozóides.Todavia, nenhuma diferença entre os níveis seminais de MDA foi encontrada, o que sugere que talvez as alterações funcionais encontradas não estejam associadas diretamente com o estresse oxidativo, ou que o estresse oxidativo leve a alterações no DNA, mitocôndrias e acrossoma durante a espermatogênese, e não após a ejaculação / Objectives: to assess the effect of varicocele on sperm nuclear DNA integrity, mitochondrial activity, lipid peroxidation and acrosome integrity. Methods: semen samples were obtained and analyzed according to the World Health Organization guidelines (1999) and sperm morphology was evaluated by Kruger’s strict criteria (1986). The study group included 30 men with varicocele grades II or III and the control group included 32 men without varicocele. Sperm nuclear DNA integrity was assessed by the alkaline Comet assay, and cells were graded according to the intensity of DNA damage: class I (high DNA integrity), class II (DNA still intact or initiating fragmentation), class III (DNA fairly fragmented) and class IV (DNA extremely fragmented). Mitochondrial activity was evaluated by the colorimetric method proposed by Hrudka (1987). Cells were classified according to the proportion of active mitochondria: class I (100% of active mitochondria), class II (more than 50% of active mitochondria), class III (less than 50% of active mitochondria) and class IV (100% of inactive mitochondria). Lipid peroxidation was determinated by Ohkawa’s method, which is based on the measurement of malondialdehyde (MDA) due to its reaction with thiobarbituric acid (TBA), and the levels of lipid peroxidation were described as nanograms of TBARS/mL. Acrosome integrity was assessed by use of the conjugated fluorescent probe PNA-FITC and the results were expressed in percentages of intact acrosomes (fluorescence was observed over the entire acrosomal region of the sperm head). Results: Concerning DNA integrity, the varicocele group showed less spermatozoa with intact nuclear DNA (grade II, p=0,040). There was no significant difference in classes I, III and IV between the two groups. Regarding mitochondrial activity the varicocele group showed more cells with inactive mitochondria (class III, p=0,001) and less cells with active mitochondria (class I, p=0,005). There was no difference in classes II and IV. Also, the varicocele group showed less spermatozoa with intact acrosomes (p=0,0002), when compared to the controls. Finally, no significant differences were observed in lipid peroxidation levels. Conclusions: This study was able to demonstrate that varicocele in adults is associated with increased DNA fragmentation, reduced mitochondrial activity and decreased acrosome integrity even when semen quality does not differ from men without varicocele. However, levels of seminal products of lipid degradation (MDA) are not increased in these patients, suggesting that perhaps the functional changes found are not directly associated with oxidative stress, or that oxidative stress leads to changes in DNA, acrosomes and mitochondria during spermatogenesis, and not after ejaculation. / TEDE / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

Hypertension is the number one cause of death worldwide. Low-grade inflammation has been identified as one of the mechanisms contributing to blood pressure elevation and remodeling of the vasculature in hypertension. Mechanisms involved in vascular inflammation and hypertension remain elusive. Vasoactive peptides such as endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II), oxidative stress and infiltration of immune cells are increased in cardiovascular tissues of hypertensive individuals. Since the vasculature is a major regulator of blood pressure levels, the hypothesis has been proposed that vascular inflammatory responses contribute to development of hypertension. / Objectives of this thesis were 1) to investigate the role of T cells in development of vascular inflammation observed in genetically hypertensive rats, 2) to identify vascular sources of reactive oxygen species production in mineralocorticoid-induced hypertension and 3) to study the effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma activators on vascular pro-inflammatory signaling pathways in Ang II-induced hypertension. / The first study that is part of this thesis shows that the transfer of chromosome 2 from normotensive to hypertensive rats reduces plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, expression of adhesion molecules and infiltration of T cells in aorta as well as resulting in lower blood pressure levels. These effects are accompanied by increased regulatory T cell mediators. We discovered that regulatory T cells are regulated by chromosome 2 and may be responsible for reducing inflammatory responses in hypertensive rats. / The second study of this thesis demonstrates in DOCA-salt hypertensive rats that superoxide (·O2-) production originates in part from xanthine oxidase activity induced by the ET-1 system and from mitochondrial sources, particularly complex II of the respiratory chain. We thus have uncovered two sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can stimulate inflammatory responses in hypertension, since vascular ·O 2- production in this model was shown to induce vascular inflammation. / The third study of the thesis shows that activators of PPAR-gamma reduce blood pressure levels and signaling pathways including Akt/PKB, SHIP2, ERK1/2, 4E-BP1 in aorta and resistance arteries in Ang II-induced hypertension. PPARy acts as an anti-inflammatory transcription factor, and the present study suggests that Ang II down-regulates PPAR-gamma activity to exert its pro-inflammatory effects. / In conclusion, by targeting inflammatory mediators, it may be possible to reduce blood pressure levels in hypertensive animals. This suggests that inflammatory responses may play a crucial role in development of high blood pressure.

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