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In this paper we compare the transmission of a conventional monetary policy shock with that of an unexpected decrease in the term spread, which mirrors quantitative easing. Employing a time-varying vector autoregression with stochastic volatility, our results are two-fold: First, the spread shock works mainly through a boost to consumer wealth growth, while a conventional monetary policy shock affects real output growth via a broad credit / bank lending channel. Second, both shocks exhibit a distinct pattern over our sample period. More specifically, we find small output effects of a conventional monetary policy shock during the period of the global financial crisis and stronger effects in its aftermath. This might imply that when the central bank has left the policy rate unaltered for an extended period of time, a policy surprise might boost output particularly strongly. By contrast, the spread shock has affected output growth most strongly during the period of the global financial crisis and less so thereafter. This might point to diminishing effects of large scale asset purchase programs. (authors' abstrct) / Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

Depuis les quarante dernières années, toutes les régions du monde ont été traversées par des événements majeurs d’instabilité économique et financière. L’un des traits caractéristiques de ces manifestations est qu’elles ont non seulement eu un impact sur la santé économique financière et sociale de leur pays d’origine, mais aussi sur les économies étrangères. Cette thèse retrace l’évolution de la crise financière mondiale, démontre comment la plupart des pays de l’OCDE ont été affectés par la contagion, et met en lumière le rôle de la politique monétaire dans la propagation de la crise. Elle se compose en six essais. Le premier chapitre s’attache à étudier les corrélations dynamiques entre différents actifs et certaines variables économiques et financières durant la bulle internet de 2000 et la crise financière mondiale. Dans le deuxième essai, nous nous intéressons aux changements de transmission internationale des chocs de politique monétaire américaine. Le troisième essai adopte une approche plus économique. Nous y étudions la synchronisation des cycles, la composante stochastique de la volatilité de l’inflation, du produit et des taux d’intérêts. Dans le 4ème essai, nous abordons l’existence d’un éventuel «shift-contagion» lors de la crise financière mondiale et lors de la crise de la dette souveraine en Europe. Le cinquième essai aborde la dynamique intra-journalière ainsi que la transmission de volatilité entre Allemagne, France, et Royaume-Uni lors de la crise financière mondiale. Enfin le dernier cherche à analyser la volatilité de 12 marchés d’action. / Depuis les quarante dernières années, toutes les régions du monde ont été traversées par des événements majeurs d’instabilité économique et financière. L’un des traits caractéristiques de ces manifestations est qu’elles ont non seulement eu un impact sur la santé économique financière et sociale de leur pays d’origine, mais aussi sur les économies étrangères. Cette thèse retrace l’évolution de la crise financière mondiale, démontre comment la plupart des pays de l’OCDE ont été affectés par la contagion, et met en lumière le rôle de la politique monétaire dans la propagation de la crise. Elle se compose en six essais. Le premier chapitre s’attache à étudier les corrélations dynamiques entre différents actifs et certaines variables économiques et financières durant la bulle internet de 2000 et la crise financière mondiale. Dans le deuxième essai, nous nous intéressons aux changements de transmission internationale des chocs de politique monétaire américaine. Le troisième essai adopte une approche plus économique. Nous y étudions la synchronisation des cycles, la composante stochastique de la volatilité de l’inflation, du produit et des taux d’intérêts. Dans le 4ème essai, nous abordons l’existence d’un éventuel «shift-contagion» lors de la crise financière mondiale et lors de la crise de la dette souveraine en Europe. Le cinquième essai aborde la dynamique intra-journalière ainsi que la transmission de volatilité entre Allemagne, France, et Royaume-Uni lors de la crise financière mondiale. Enfin le dernier cherche à analyser la volatilité de 12 marchés d’action.

Historically, credit market conditions have been shown to impact economic activity, at times severely. For instance, in the late 2000s, the United States experienced a financial crisis that seized domestic and foreign credit markets. The ensuing lack of access to credit brought about a steep decline in output and a sluggish recovery. Accordingly, policymakers commonly take steps to mitigate the effects of adverse credit market conditions and, at times, conduct unconventional monetary policy once traditional policy tools become ineffective. This dissertation is a collection of essays regarding monetary policy, the flow of credit, financial crises, and the macroeconomy. Specifically, I describe monetary policy’s impact on the allocation of credit in the U.S. and analyze the role of upstream and downstream credit conditions and financial crises on international trade in a global supply chain. The first chapter assesses the impact of monetary policy shocks on credit reallocation and evaluates the importance of theoretical transmission mechanisms. Compustat data covering 1974 through 2017 is used to compute quarterly measures of credit flows. I find that expansionary monetary policy is associated with positive long-term credit creation and credit reallocation. These impacts are larger for long-term credit and for credit of financially constrained firms and firms that are perceived as risky to the lender. This is predicted by the balance sheet channel of monetary policy and mechanisms that reduce lenders’ risk perceptions and increase the tendency to search for yield. Furthermore, I find that, on average, the largest increases in credit creation resulting from monetary expansion are to firms that exhibit relatively low investment efficiency. These estimation results suggest that expansionary monetary policy may have a negative impact on future economic growth. The second chapter evaluates the quantitative effects of unconventional monetary policy in the late 2000s and early 2010s. This was a period when the traditional monetary policy tool (the federal funds rate) was constrained by the zero lower bound. We compute credit flow measures using Compustat data, and we employ a factor augmented vector autoregression to analyze unconventional monetary policy’s impact on the allocation of credit during the zero lower bound period. By employing policy counterfactuals, we find that unconventional monetary policy has a positive and simultaneous impact on credit creation and credit destruction and these impacts are larger in long-term credit markets. Applying this technique to analyze the flows of financially constrained and non-financially constrained borrowing firms, we find that unconventional monetary policy operates through the easing of collateral constraints because these effects are larger for small firms or those with high default probabilities. During the zero lower bound period, we also find that unconventional monetary policy brings about increases in credit creation for firms of relatively high investment efficiency. The third chapter pertains to the global trade collapse of the late 2000s. This collapse was due, in part, to strained credit markets and the vulnerability of exporters to adverse credit market conditions. The chapter evaluates the impact of upstream and downstream credit conditions and the differential effects of financial crises on bilateral trade. I find that upstream and downstream sectors’ needs for external financing is negatively associated with trade flows when the exporting or importing country’s cost of credit is high. However, I find that this effect is dampened for downstream sectors. I also find that downstream sectors’ value of collateral is positively associated with trade when the cost of credit is high in the importing country. High downstream trade credit dependence coupled with high costs of credit in the importing country also cause declines in imports. There are amplifying effects of credit costs for sectors that are highly dependent on external financing when the importing or exporting country is in financial crisis. Further, the magnitude is larger when the exporting country is in financial crisis. Finally, I find that these effects on trade flows are large when the exporting country is a developed economy, but they are muted for developing economies.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a dinâmica da transmissão da política monetária através dos canais de crédito (Canal de Empréstimo Bancário e Canal dos Balanços Patrimoniais), utilizando conceitos e ferramentas da área de Sistemas Complexos para simular uma economia representada por diferentes setores em que os agentes estão interconectados através de relacionamentos de crédito. O presente modelo baseia-se no trabalho de Gatti et al. (2009). A novidade foi introduzir um mecanismo de transmissão da política monetária através de um mercado interbancário e de uma taxa básica de juros permitindo analisar os impactos na economia através dos canais de crédito. O resultado da simulação mostra que o impacto das políticas monetárias no âmbito microeconômico podem se desenvolver como resultado da interação complexa desses agentes heterogêneos através de relacionamentos de crédito ao longo do tempo, e as variáveis no âmbito macroeconômico, como a taxa básica de juros, afetam o próprio sistema através de um processo de retroalimentação ou feedback. / This study aims to analyze the dynamics of the monetary policy transmission through the credit channels (Bank Lending Channel and Balance Sheets Channel), using concepts and tools from the Complex Systems field to simulate an economy represented by different sectors in which agents are interconnected via credit relationships. This model is based on the work of Gatti et al. (2009) that used agent-based modeling. The novelty was to introduce a transmission mechanism of monetary policy through an interbank market and a primary interest rate, allowing the analysis of the impacts on the economy through the credit channels. The simulation results show that the impact of monetary policy on microeconomic level can be developed as a result of the complex interaction of these heterogeneous agents via credit relationships over time, and the variables in the macroeconomic context, such as the primary interest rate, affect the system through a feedback process.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a dinâmica da transmissão da política monetária através dos canais de crédito (Canal de Empréstimo Bancário e Canal dos Balanços Patrimoniais), utilizando conceitos e ferramentas da área de Sistemas Complexos para simular uma economia representada por diferentes setores em que os agentes estão interconectados através de relacionamentos de crédito. O presente modelo baseia-se no trabalho de Gatti et al. (2009). A novidade foi introduzir um mecanismo de transmissão da política monetária através de um mercado interbancário e de uma taxa básica de juros permitindo analisar os impactos na economia através dos canais de crédito. O resultado da simulação mostra que o impacto das políticas monetárias no âmbito microeconômico podem se desenvolver como resultado da interação complexa desses agentes heterogêneos através de relacionamentos de crédito ao longo do tempo, e as variáveis no âmbito macroeconômico, como a taxa básica de juros, afetam o próprio sistema através de um processo de retroalimentação ou feedback. / This study aims to analyze the dynamics of the monetary policy transmission through the credit channels (Bank Lending Channel and Balance Sheets Channel), using concepts and tools from the Complex Systems field to simulate an economy represented by different sectors in which agents are interconnected via credit relationships. This model is based on the work of Gatti et al. (2009) that used agent-based modeling. The novelty was to introduce a transmission mechanism of monetary policy through an interbank market and a primary interest rate, allowing the analysis of the impacts on the economy through the credit channels. The simulation results show that the impact of monetary policy on microeconomic level can be developed as a result of the complex interaction of these heterogeneous agents via credit relationships over time, and the variables in the macroeconomic context, such as the primary interest rate, affect the system through a feedback process.

Macroeconomic stability is one of the most important national objectives in any country. However, economies are often subjected to a number of shocks (internal and external), which can be destabilising, produce volatility and make it difficult to achieve and maintain economic stability. Consequently, various policies are used to help deal with the various shocks that may affect the economy. Of all the available policies, monetary policy appears to have been ever more at the centre of macroeconomic policymaking. Meanwhile, for monetary policy to be effective, there is a need for a better understanding of the transmission mechanism, i.e., the process through which monetary policy decisions are transmitted into changes in real output and inflation. Whereas extensive research on the transmission mechanism has been conducted in developed countries, such work in developing countries, especially in Africa is lacking. This could be due to the fact that it was not long time ago, around the 1990s that countries in Africa started adopting the more modem central bank operations in a market-based economic and financial system characterised by indirect monetary policy. Such operations require an understanding of the transmission mechanism. Lack of empirical analysis of the monetary transmission mechanism in Botswana and developing countries of Africa in general, is the main motivating factor behind this thesis. The main objective of this thesis is, therefore, to estimate the transmission mechanism of monetary policy in Botswana. Three different, but complementary techniques (the Narrative Approach, Vector Autoregression (VAR) analysis and the Structural Approach involving the estimation of a small structural model for Botswana economy) are used. Results from these methods tell a consistent story and indicate that monetary policy in Botswana affects real output and inflation through the interest rate channel, while the exchange rate channel is not operational. The credit channel is also active but not strong. The structural approach also indicates that devaluation is contractionary in Botswana, but more research is necessary before firmer conclusions could be made.

Previous research suggests that a policy interest rate cut below the reversal interest rate reverses the intended effect of monetary policy and becomes contractionary for lending. This paper is an empirical investigation into whether the reversal interest rate was breached in the Swedish negative interest rate environment between February 2015 and July 2016. We find that banks with a greater reliance on deposit funding were adversely affected by the negative interest rate environment, relative to other banks. This is because deposit rates are constrained by a zero lower bound, since banks are reluctant to introduce negative deposit rates for fear of deposit withdrawals. We show with a difference-in-differences approach that the most affected banks reduced loans to households and raised 5 year mortgage lending rates, as compared to the less affected banks, in the negative interest rate environment. These banks also experienced a drop in profitability, suggesting that the zero lower bound on deposits caused the lending spread of banks to be squeezed. However, we do not find evidence that the reversal rate has been breached. / Tidigare forskning menar att en sänkning av styrräntan under brytpunktsräntan gör att penningpolitiken får motsatt effekt och blir åtstramande för utlåning. Denna rapport är en empirisk studie av huruvida brytpunktsräntan passerades i det negativa ränteläget mellan februari 2015 och juli 2016 i Sverige. Våra resultat pekar på att banker vars finansiering till större del bestod av inlåning påverkades negativt av den negativa styrräntan, relativt till andra banker. Detta beror på att inlåningsräntor är begränsade av en lägre nedre gräns på noll procent. Banker är ovilliga att introducera negativa inlåningsräntor för att undvika att kunder tar ut sina insättningar och håller kontanter istället. Vi visar med en "difference-in-differences"-analys att de mest påverkade bankerna minskade lån till hushåll och höjde bolåneräntor med 5-åriga löptider, relativt till mindre påverkade banker, som konsekvens av den negativa styrräntan. Dessa banker upplevde även en minskning av lönsamhet, vilket indikerar att noll som en nedre gräns på inlåningsräntor bidrog till att bankernas räntemarginaler minskade. Vi hittar dock inga bevis på att brytpunktsräntan har passerats.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-08T14:44:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 1739811 bytes, checksum: af3f93d3e66b193f145d52ddb62006d1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-03-20 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This paper goal was to investigate important aspects about Cape Verde monetary policy and its transmission to the economy, during the 1991/2011 period with quarterly data. In which are included the Gross Domestic Product and the prices index as target variables, the liabilities operations rates over 91 days as a monetary policy instrument and the BCV´s nominal effective exchange rate index as the monetary policy intermediate goal. The implemented methodology was the VAR and MS-VAR models. As a result, we have that the modification of a VAR model to a MS-VAR brought information gains by allowing some non-linearity to the model. It was estimated two models for each methodology, in which the difference between then is due to the fact that one of them doesn´t include the exchange rate (simpler model). It was identified two regimes, in which the regime 2 appeared to be more persistent and is was also verified its exclusivity during the 1993:1 to 2006:2 period, which coincides with the period when it was separated the functions of the central and commercial banks and also was created two independent institutions, with a change in the exchange rate regime as well, that occurred in 1998. It was observed also that the regimes classification is sensitive to changes in the interest rate until some level and that the prevailing interest rate in Cape Verde is relatively high. This fact is due to the structure of the national financial market and the weak inter savings. In the second regime, the results from the impulse and response functions showed themselves coherents to the conventional theory, in the sense that a positive shock in the interest rates causes a reduction in the production and prices level. On the other hand, the obtained results from regime 1 are different, principally for the IPC response to a shock in the interest rate, once that this shock causes an increase in this variable. The introduction of the exchange rate in the model, caused a reduction on the impact of the Txjur on the IPC on the regime 1, when comparing to the previous model. Another registered alteration on the results was that the duration of the negative effect caused by the positive shock on the GDP appeared to be lower in both regimes. / O presente trabalho teve como intuito investigar aspectos importantes sobre a política monetária em Cabo Verde e sua transmissão à economia, durante o período 1991/2011 com dados trimestrais. Entre eles figuram o produto interno bruto e o índice de preços como variáveis metas, as taxas ativas para operações a 91 dias como instrumento de política monetária e por fim a o índice de câmbio efetivo nominal do BCV como o objetivo intermediário da política monetária. A metodologia empregada foi o modelo VAR e o MS-VAR. Como resultado temos que a modificação de um modelo VAR para um MS-VAR, trouxe ganhos de informações por permitir certa não-linearidade no modelo. Para cada metodologia foi estimado dois modelos, sendo que a diferença é porque um deles não inclui o câmbio (modelo simples). Foram identificados dois regimes, sendo que o regime 2 mostrou ser mais persistente e verificou também a sua exclusividade durante todo o período 1993:1 a 2006:2 o que coincide com o período em que houve a separação das funções do banco central e comercial e a criação de duas instituições independentes, bem como a mudança no regime cambial, que ocorreu em 1998. Observou também que a classificação dos regimes é sensível a mudanças em até certo patamar na taxa de juros e que em Cabo Verde a taxa de juros a que prevalece é relativamente alta. Tal fato se deve a própria estrutura do mercado financeiro nacional e da fraca poupança interna. No segundo regime os resultados das funções impulso e respostas mostraram coerentes com a teoria convencional, no sentido de que choque positivo na taxa de juros leva a redução no produto e nível de preços. Já os resultados obtidos no regime 1 principalmente para a resposta do IPC a um choque na taxa de juro são diferentes, uma vez que tal choque leva a um aumento nessa variável. Ao introduzir o câmbio no modelo, fez com que no regime 1 o impacto da Txjur no IPC se reduza de 3 ponto percentual para 2,5 em relação ao modelo anterior. Outra alteração registrada nos resultados foi o tempo de duração do efeito negativo do choque positivo na taxa de juros sobre o PIB que mostrou ser menor em ambos os regimes.

Abstract China’s outstanding growth performance of recent years, the ongoing liberalisation of its capital market, and its deepening integration into the world economy provide ample motivation for a deeper understanding of the country’s economic policy-making. This dissertation is an attempt to better understand monetary policy operations and transmission in this rapidly evolving situation. Monetary policy in China is unique compared to any other country in terms of both the available policy instruments and the policy environment. The policy regime is transitioning to a more market-orientated one, and presently the central bank uses a mixture of quantity-based and price-based instruments. These special features are addressed in this dissertation. The dissertation is comprised of four independent but related essays that empirically evaluate monetary policy implementation and the policy environment in China. The first essay examines the relevance of a quantity-based McCallum-type policy rule in achieving price stability. The findings are that deviations in money supply from the rule help to forecast price developments and thus underline the relation between money supply and prices in China. The second essay considers a wider selection of possible policy rules and examines the monetary policy implementation and instruments used by the central bank. Money supply and interest rate instruments are found to react differently to price and output developments. The interest rate instrument is gaining weight over time, which highlights China’s transition to a more market-based policy setting. The third essay utilises bank-level data to study monetary policy transmission and the existence of the bank lending channel in China. Changes in the reserve requirement ratio are found to affect bank lending in China in a similar manner as changes in interest rates. Different types of banks (by ownership) react differently to these changes, but no robust evidence of a bank lending channel is found. The fourth essay compares the economic dynamics in a DSGE modelling framework under the assumption that China can successfully rebalance its economy and achieve a lower savings rate and higher level of domestic consumption. The rebalancing does not notably affect the transmission of monetary policy shocks, but it does render the economy more resilient to technology shocks. / Tiivistelmä Kiinan nopea talouskasvu, pääomamarkkinoiden avaaminen ja maan tiiviimpi kytkeytyminen maailmantalouteen ovat johtaneet siihen, että Kiinan talouspolitiikan ymmärtäminen on aiempaa tärkeämpää. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on perehtyä Kiinan rahapolitiikkatoimiin ja politiikan välittymiseen nopeasti muuttuvassa ympäristössä. Rahapolitiikka Kiinassa eroaa muiden maiden rahapolitiikasta niin käytössä olevien instrumenttien kuin politiikkaympäristönkin kannalta. Kiina on siirtymävaiheessa kohti markkinaperusteisempaa rahapolitiikkaa, ja tällä hetkellä maan keskuspankki käyttää sekä hinta- että määräperusteisia instrumentteja. Näitä erityispiirteitä tarkastellaan tähän väitöskirjaan sisältyvissä tutkimuksissa. Väitöskirja koostuu neljästä yksittäisestä mutta toisiinsa liittyvästä esseestä, joissa tarkastellaan empiirisesti rahapolitiikan toteutusta sekä politiikkaympäristöä Kiinassa. Ensimmäisessä esseessä käsitellään määräperusteisen McCallum-rahapolitiikkasäännön käyttökelpoisuutta hintavakaustavoitteen saavuttamisessa. Havaitut poikkeamat säännön suosittelemasta rahamäärän kasvusta parantavat inflaatioennusteita, mikä korostaa rahan tarjonnan ja hintakehityksen välistä suhdetta. Toisessa esseessä hyödynnetään useampia mahdollisia rahapolitiikkasääntöjä ja tarkastellaan rahapolitiikan toteutusta ja keskuspankin käyttämiä politiikkainstrumentteja. Rahan tarjonnan ja korkoinstrumentin havaitaan reagoivan eri tavoin hintakehitykseen ja tuotannon kasvuun. Korkoinstrumentin painoarvo kasvaa ajan kuluessa, mikä osoittaa Kiinan olevan siirtymässä kohti markkinaperusteisempaa politiikkaa. Kolmannessa esseessä hyödynnetään pankkikohtaista aineistoa ja tarkastellaan rahapolitiikan välittymistä ja pankkilainakanavan olemassaoloa. Keskuspankin varantovaatimusmuutosten havaitaan vaikuttavan pankkien lainanantoon samalla tavoin korkomuutosten kanssa. Omistustyypin mukaan jaoteltuna erilaiset pankit reagoivat eri tavoin rahapolitiikan muutoksiin. Tutkimuksessa ei kuitenkaan löydy vankkaa tukea pankkilainakanavan olemassaololle. Neljännessä esseessä tarkastellaan talouden dynamiikkaa DSGE-mallikehikossa olettaen, että Kiina onnistuu tasapainottamaan talouttaan niin, että säästämisaste laskee ja kotimaisen kulutuksen osuus taloudessa kasvaa. Tasapainottaminen ei merkittävästi vaikuta rahapolitiikkasokkien välittymiseen, mutta tekee taloudesta vähemmän herkän teknologiasokeille.