The recent move to in situ conservation management world-wide is supported by, and stems from the 1992 International Convention on Biological Diversity. The Department of Conservation - charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural resources - has directed efforts towards the restoration of natural processes as an avenue to halt local biodiversity decline. Ecosystem, habitat, and nature restoration programmes such as the Boundary Stream Mainland Island Project (BSMIP) represent the forefront of conservation management, combining intensive multi-species pest control, with broad-scale hierarchical monitoring programmes. Monitoring programmes confer information that is intended to support decision-making and management by the reduction of uncertainty, or by increasing knowledge. The validity of monitoring programmes depends on three key parts; the guiding objectives, biological relevance, and statistical reliability. Seven major long-term monitoring programmes established at the BSMIP were evaluated according to the above criteria. All monitoring programmes had appropriate guiding objectives, and were biologically relevant (outcome and result monitoring were balanced respective to each other and to the restoration intervention and efforts at BSMIP). The statistical reliability of the programmes was appraised with the use of the Computer programme MONITOR, which provided a calculated value for the statistical power of the monitoring programmes. All monitoring programmes except two (Lizard monitoring: which was initially designed as a short-term species survey, and Mustelid monitoring: which would be a good candidate for a double sampling methodology) had a robust design (evaluated using the actual initial data, and conservative criteria for the detection of population change). The monitoring programmes that did achieve a level of statistical robustness, provided a statistical power of 0.8 ( 80%) within appropriate timeframes for restoration of ecosystem processes (e.g. the timeframe for detection of a 10% change in the abundance, density, relative index, etc of the Result monitoring programmes: Rodents = three years, Possums = six years, and Outcome monitoring programmes: Weta = five years, Ground Invertebrates = four years, Birds (species nos.) = four years, Vegetation (Species, and sapling nos.) = 15 years). The guiding objectives for monitoring programmes must have clear, specific, measurable, and achievable goals, in-order to identify appropriate variables, in both spatial and temporal scales. The biological relevance or "linkage" between monitored groups is important and must be at least outlined, for monitoring programmes to be able to identify potential cause and effect. Statistical reliability (the balance between statistical significance, statistical power, and the timeframe for a conclusive result to be determined) is important, as it is the key method of detecting change. Statistical power can improve the design and efficiency of monitoring programmes and clarify research results. Power analysis has become readily available for researchers and managers with the development of computer programmes specifically designed for this task.

L'évaluation des produits phytopharmaceutiques, leur mise sur le marché et la surveillance des résidus de pesticides dans les aliments sont harmonisés au niveau européen. Les estimations des expositions alimentaires a posteriori réalisées en Europe sont cependant incomplètes au regard du nombre de denrées et de pesticides évalués, et les données de consommation utilisées sont souvent anciennes. L’amélioration des connaissances sur les risques alimentaires liés aux pesticides constitue l’un des enjeux majeurs de santé publique. L’objectif de cette thèse est de construire un système national de surveillance a posteriori des expositions et des risques alimentaires afin de guider (1) d’une part les gestionnaires du risque dans le cadre de l’élaboration de leurs programmes de surveillance et des mesures préventives et correctives ; (2) d’autre part les évaluateurs du risque dans l’orientation des travaux de recherche et d’expertise en métrologie, expologie et toxicologie. Ce système de surveillance comprend deux outils complémentaires : (1) une méthode d’appréciation quantitative du risque dite « globale » basée sur quatre indicateurs chroniques et aigus actualisés annuellement à partir des résultats des derniers plans de surveillance et des limites maximales de résidus ; (2) des études pluriannuelles dites études de l’alimentation totale (EAT) dont la première EAT française sur les pesticides. Ces deux approches sont basées sur les données de l’étude individuelle et nationale des consommations alimentaires Inca 2 de l’Anses. La méthode globale annuelle intègre une échelle de priorités ayant permis de hiérarchiser les risques pour 519 pesticides. Les niveaux d’exposition estimés dans l’EAT2 sont globalement plus réalistes que ceux issus de la méthode annuelle. Cependant, les deux outils n’ont pas permis initialement d’affiner suffisamment l’évaluation pour certains pesticides. Par conséquent, la méthode a été ajustée afin de mieux gérer les résultats d’analyse censurés. Après ajustement, 14% des pesticides sont identifiés comme prioritaires en termes d’évaluation et/ou de gestion du risque (niveaux 2 à 6), compte tenu de dépassements des valeurs toxicologiques de référence. A partir des couples prioritaires pesticide/denrée, un plan d’échantillonnage est défini pour les prochains plans de surveillance. Des mesures de gestion correctives et une intensification des contrôles à la production et à la distribution sont recommandés pour 11 pesticides de niveau de risque maximal (niveau 6) en lien avec 16 couples pesticide/denrée. Au final, ce système national est plus complet et plus adapté à la population française que l’évaluation communautaire annuelle. Les résultats obtenus sont par ailleurs cohérents avec ceux de la première étude nationale de biosurveillance sur les pesticides. Enfin, la méthode globale annuelle intégrera les évolutions méthodologiques communautaires récentes pour l’évaluation des risques cumulés. / The evaluation of plant protection products, their marketing and the monitoring of pesticide residues in food are harmonized in the European Union. Nevertheless, the assessment of dietary exposure at post-regulation level is incomplete due to the small number of foods and pesticides taken into account. In addition, consumption data are often obsolete. Improving knowledge on the dietary risk of pesticide residues is one of the major challenges to public health. The aim of this thesis is to build a national system for the ex post monitoring of dietary exposure and risk to the general population in order to guide (1) risk managers in the development of their monitoring programmes and preventive and corrective measures; (2) risk assessors in guiding research and expertise in metrology, exposure assessment and toxicology. This monitoring system includes two complementary tools: (1) an annual method of quantitative risk assessment based on four chronic and acute indicators updated each year and based on the results of the latest monitoring plans and maximum residue levels; (2) multi-year total diet studies (TDS), including the first TDS on pesticide residues (TDS2). These two approaches are based on the results of ANSES’s INCA2 individual and national consumption survey. This annual method includes a 6-level risk scale that enables the prioritization of risk for 519 pesticides. The exposure levels estimated in TDS2 are in general more realistic than those of the annual method. However, for certain pesticides it was not possible to sufficiently refine exposure levels using these two tools. Consequently, the annual method was adjusted to improve management of left-censored analytical results. After adjustment, 14% of pesticides were identified as a priority in terms of risk assessment and/or risk management (levels 2 to 6), given that they exceeded the toxicological reference values. Based on priority pesticide/foodstuff pairs, a sampling plan has been established for subsequent monitoring programmes. Corrective management measures and intensified controls of production and distribution are recommended for 11 pesticides scored at maximal risk level (level 6) in association with 16 pesticide/foodstuff pairs. In the end, this national system is more comprehensive and better suited to the French population than the annual EU assessment. The results are also consistent with those of the first national biomonitoring study on pesticides. The annual method will also incorporate recent European methodological developments for cumulative risk assessment.