Although the European flora belongs to the best explored at the global scale, still there are several largely neglected plant groups, which may surprise by marked variation. One of these groups is Urtica dioica s. l., consisting of vaguely described taxa (microspecies / subspecies) with indefinite distribution. The most important source of variation in U. dioica s. l. is probably polyploidy (2x, 4x; x = 13). The complex comprises an ubiquitous tetraploid cytotype (U. dioica s. str.) and several obscurely defined relict 2x taxa. The cytogeographical analysis through Europe (770 populations / over 3 200 individuals) revealed marked distribution pattern of U. dioica s. l. cytotypes. We identified 106 diploid populations (13%) and 633 (82%) tetraploid populations. For the first time we detected triploid and pentaploid level (from mixed populations). Prevailing tetraploid U. dioica s. str. is predominantly synanthropic, whereas diploid taxa strictly occur in primary and relict habitats (primarily alluvial forests, tundra, Mediterranean mountains). The analysis of the absolute genome size of individuals from U. dioica clade and other closely related taxa showed different values of 2x U. kioviensis (19 % higher than 2x U. d. subsp. subinermis) and 2x U. bianorii (33% higher than 2x U. d. subsp....

The role of plants in Neanderthal subsistence is less well known than the role of animals due to differences in preservation and a subsequent lack of study. Phytoliths, the silica infillings of plant cells, are more durable than organic components of plants and can be used to reconstruct human activities, local plant ecology, and diagenetic alteration of archaeological sediments. This dissertation, comprising three articles, examines the relationship between Neanderthals and plants during the Middle Paleolithic (ca. 100,000-40,000 BP) of southwest France using phytolith analysis. The first article provides an analysis of the phytoliths recovered from the cave site of Roc de Marsal, relating phytolith concentrations and identifications to environmental change, natural deposition, and Neanderthal pyrotechnology. The analysis of 115 phytolith samples provides evidence for spatial patterning in plant remains related to hearth features and diachronic change in plant use coincident with a shift from warm stadial to cold glacial conditions. The second article applies morphometric statistics to a specific class of phytoliths, grass cells known as bilobates, to understand the range of variation within and among grass genera and to compare these results with an archaeological phytolith assemblage. More than 200 archaeological bilobates from Roc de Marsal are compared with those from seven modern reference specimens to assess these links. The analysis of the modern material indicates that some species are good candidates for morphometrics, but others should be avoided. The range of variation and lack of patterning in the archaeological assemblage suggest that Neanderthals at this site used multiple grass species. The third article presents the analysis of 102 phytolith samples from Pech de l’Azé IV in comparison to those from Roc de Marsal. The two sites are similar in terms of chronology, stratigraphy, artifacts, and preserved combustion features, but there are key differences in the structure/morphology of hearths and phytolith densities. The comparison of these two sites highlights variation in Neanderthal pyrotechnology and fuel use. The analysis also indicates that different phytolith recovery protocols are needed to maximize phytolith extraction due to differences in formation processes between sites and should be evaluated on a site by site basis. / 2019-11-27T00:00:00Z

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine the earliest time point in growth when a difference in mandibular shape of dolichocephalic and brachycephalic subjects is distinguishable. MATERIALS & METHODS: 11 dolichocephalic and 14 brachycephalic subjects were selected using lateral cephalograms from the Forsyth/Moorrees Twin Study using a method described by Rocky Mountain Orthodontics. 23 landmarks outlining the mandible were identified on the lateral cephalograms of each subject from their earliest age (5-8 years) to their latest (16-18 years) using TPSdig software. The 2 dimensional coordinates for each landmark were then exported to TPSUtil. From TPSUtil, the TPS data was then converted to a .csv file in Microsoft Excel and imported into MorphoJ for analysis. Primary morphometric analysis consisted of generalized Procrustes analysis, principal component analysis, and discriminant function analysis. RESULTS: The first 5 principal components for both facial types accounted for the majority of the variance. Discriminant function analyses were not significant for any phenotype or age group pairing, suggesting that the overall shape difference was too small to be detected between groups and over time starting at age 7. A plot of the Procrustes coordinates for the brachycephalic group versus the dolichocephalic group revealed that there were differences in shape between the two phenotypes, but this difference was statistically insignificant. CONCLUSIONS: The mandible increases in size with age, with minimal change in shape. Mandibular shape is established by the age of 7. The difference in mandibular shapes of the two phenotypes was not statistically significant.

Two discreet methods of geometric morphometrics were applied to evaluate the taxonomic utility of each in classifying the craniomandibular region of several Mustela species. Use of both linear measurements and 2-dimensional landmarks proved successful in discriminating between extant M. nigripes (black-footed ferret) and Neovison vison (American mink), in addition to the extant North American weasel species (M. erminea, M. frenata, M. nivalis). Methods were then used to classify Late Pleistocene Mustela spp. fossils collected from Snake Creek Burial Cave (SCBC) of eastern Nevada. Data acquired for unknown predicted group memberships varied markedly among methods and specimens. Nevertheless, results support the presence of M. nigripes and all 3 weasel taxa among the SCBC paleofauna.

Clark’s Cave contains a large collection of late Pleistocene mammal material. In particular, it contains a sizable amount of Microtus spp. which can be valuable paleoclimate indicators. Identification techniques traditionally used to classify these species have been shown to be unreliable. Recent studies have shown that using geometric morphometric techniques on lower first molars can be more successful. By placing landmarks and running a discriminate analysis on new and previously collected material from the cave, significant differences in Microtus species proportions were found. Specifically, showing the deposit has a larger proportion of M. xanthognathus than previously reported; resulting in a subsequent drop in the number of M. pennsylvanicus and M. chrotorrhinus present. Moreover, previously unreported M. ochrogaster was determined to be an important component of the fauna. The results presented here show the importance of applying new techniques to previous studies.

The American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, is a large extant archosaur and member of the Order Crocodilia. Crocodilian ontogeny has been studied in great detail, the skull being of particular interest. One aspect of the skull left unstudied is how individual cranial elements change through ontogeny independent of one another. This study observed morphological change in a growth series of 34 specimens of A. mississippiensis from ETSU Vertebrate Paleontology Lab collections. The premaxilla, maxilla, nasal, jugal, frontal, and parietal were analyzed using landmark morphometrics. The frontal, jugal, and parietal showed more allometric growth with the orbits reducing in size posteriorly. The premaxilla, maxilla, and nasal showed more isometric growth. This suggests the common observation that the snout elongates with age is mistaken. The cranium showed allometric growth in very early in life but more isometric growth after that. Unique to this study, the premaxilla showed almost no shape change throughout ontogeny.

Introduction: Chondrocranial-derived components of the craniofacial skeleton are thought to exert a morphogenetic influence on surrounding intramembranous-derived skeletal structures. In our previous study (Foster and Holton, 2016), we found that the ontogenetic relationship between the nasal septum (derived primarily from the chondrocranium) and surrounding intramembranous-derived facial skeleton was highly variable in BL6 and C3H mice. The purpose of our present study was to examine samples of BL6 and C3H mice from 3 to 15 weeks of age to determine whether the variable interaction noted previously extends to chondrocranial- and intramembranous-derived components throughout the cranium. Methods: Cross-sectional samples of male C57BL/6J (BL6) and C3H/HeJ (C3H) at 3 (n=18) and 15 (n=30) weeks of age were studied. All mouse crania were scanned using a Skyscan 1272 microCT scanner, and a series of three-dimensional traditional and semilandmark coordinate landmarks were collected. Geometric morphometric techniques were utilized for data analysis. Results: During the period of 3-15 weeks of age, there was considerable variation in the ontogeny of chondrocranial- and intramembranous-derived craniofacial regions. Conclusions: During the period of 3-15 weeks of age, C3H mice were characterized by a relative enlargement of the chondrocranial-derived craniofacial skeleton. The chondrocranial morphology of the C3H mice may be a causal factor in the increased magnitude of variation seen in the C3H intramembranous-derived facial skeleton. Developmental variation within specific components of the craniofacial complex may account for taxonomic variation in facial height that accompanies anteroposterior facial skeletal reduction characteristic of taxa such as anthropoid primates.

Bite marks provide direct evidence of trophic interactions, feeding behavior, and inter- or intraspecific conflict in the fossil record. However, their utility as a source of taphonomic and paleoecologic data requires differentiation from traces left by other processes. Since the 19th century, taphonomists have often relied on actualistic observations of modern bite marks and feeding behaviors in order to identify diagnostic traces and patterns. A recent increase in interest in taphonomic research has resulted in a large body of work describing patterns of bite marks from many different clades. Most research has been focused on mammalian taxa, but a smaller number of non-mammalian groups, including crocodylians, have also drawn interest. Crocodylians are taphonomic agents who consume and modify bones, often depositing them in the active depositional systems in which they live. However, actualistic observations of crocodylian bite marks have been limited to forensic case studies and surveys of two taxa: Crocodylus niloticus and Crocodylus porosus. Both surveys utilized captive animals, which often exhibit atypical morphologies that may bias ensuing bite mark datasets. In order to address this issue, a 2D morphometric analysis of Alligator mississippiensis crania from captive and wild specimens was performed. A principal component analysis and a canonical variates analysis revealed some statistically significant differences between the two groups, while crossvalidation had mixed resuts. An ANCOVA test of the covariance of centroid size and origin against shape (principal component scores) revealed that the effects of ontogeny introduced a stronger signal than captivity. This implies that while using captive crocodylians in fine scale analyses should be avoided, they are suitable for gross scale research, such as bite mark analyses. To explore crocodylian bite mark patterns in greater depth, a large scale survey of traces left by A. mississippiensis was performed. Bite mark types on samples taken from individual feedings were discussed in light of vital statistics and collection protocols. Bite mark types on samples taken from group feedings were classified by location and orientation on bone and type. The results were compared to pre-existing crocodylian datasets with regards to potentially diagnostic traits: bisected marks, hook scores, and a lack of furrows. Bisected marks were found in rates similar to those seen in C. niloticus, and rates of hook scoring and bone breakage were higher. These traces were present in higher rates than those reported in C. porosus. Furrows were identified, but rare. Finally, a survey of bite marks from 21 of the 23 generally recognized species of extant crocodylians was performed to better characterize marks found across Crocodylia and to test methods for synthesizing taphonomic datasets. Bite marks were identified, and specimens were then coded for presence or absence of mark subscores. Attempts to find statistical correlation between mark types, animal vital statistics, and sample collection protocol were unsuccessful. Mapping bite mark character states on a eusuchian phylogeny successfully predicted the presence of bisected marks in previously published, extinct taxa. Predictions for clades that may have created multiple subscores, striated marks, and extensive crushing were also generated. Inclusion of fossil bite marks which have been positively associated with extinct species allow this method to be projected beyond the crown group. The results of this study indicate that phylogenies can and should be explored further for use as predictive tools in a taphonomic framework.

This project seeks to explore, name, and describe some of the earliest known members of Alligatoroidea. Explorations of Bottosaurus harlani and Deinosuchus reveal that early in their evolutionary history alligatoroids had attained bauplans that are highly divergent from the ancestral condition in both body size and morphology. Bottosaurus harlani preserves aspects of the skull table – including constricted supratemporal fenestrae, a linear frontoparietal suture, and a large trapezoidal dorsal supraoccipital exposure – that are similar to those of caimans. Optimal trees from phylogenetic analysis recover B. harlani in three different positions; as a sister either to the modern dwarf caimans (Paleosuchus), or either living species of Paleosuchus. That a substantial stratigraphic gap separates B. harlani from both species of Paleosuchus, which first appears in the Miocene, along with low character and nodal support raises questions about this relationship. However, should the relationships recovered here be true, Bottosaurus harlani would be the oldest known caiman. The taxon indicates that morphologies common to modern caimans date to the earliest record of the clade. In addition to the enigmatic B. harlani, the Campanian giant Deinosuchus was re-evaluated as part of this project. Recent consensus has been that the three named species of Deinosuchus (D. hatcheri, D. riograndensis, and D. rugosus) represent a single, widely ranging species. Newly-collected material from the Big Bend region of western Texas and increased sampling of the lineage from throughout North America allowed for a review of species-level systematics of Deinosuchus and helped refine its phylogenetic placement among crocodylians. Deinosuchus from western and eastern North America can be consistently differentiated and represent different species. As a result of the lack of diagnostic characters in the very incomplete holotype specimen, the name Deinosuchus is restricted to D. hatcheri. To encompass specimens formerly included in Deinosuchus a new genus, Deinosuchoides, is erected. In addition to naming a new genus, the holotype specimen for Deinosuchus rugosus is determined to be undiagnostic to species level and is therefore a nomen dubium. A new species, Deinosuchoides schwimmeri, is erected upon a cranial specimen from Mississippi. The snout of Deinosuchoides is very long and wide. Almost invariably, crocodylian snouts are either long or wide, but not both. In addition to the unusually long and wide snout, the skull table of this taxon bears hallmarks found in species of other long-snouted taxa such as Tomistoma and Gavialis. To explore the variability of the crocodylian skull table a morphometric analysis was conducted with the inclusion of fossil taxa. As the skull table is robust and likely to be recovered in the paleontological record this element was an ideal fit for a morphometric study. In addition to establishing the morphospace occupation of fossil taxa, the morphometric analysis found considerable overlap in morphospace between Alligatoroidea and Crocodyloidea – the overlap between these groups may be the product of shared ancestry. Additionally, similarities exist in the ecologies of these groups as evidenced by shared snout shape categories. This project finds association between skull table shape and snout length. As such, plotting isolated skull tables in morphospace, may indicate snout length and thus ecology of fossil taxa. When landmarks representing the supratemporal fenestrae are included in the analysis Gavialoidea is broadly separated from the other groups in morphospace. It has been long hypothesized that the size of the supratemporal fenestrae reflect the length of the snout as a result of jaw musculature attaching to their medial margins. However, this relationship is not as straightforward as previously hypothesized; the snouts of the crocodyloids Tomistoma and Euthecodon may exceed the length of the snout in gavialoids but their supratemporal fenestrae are proportionally smaller. This study suggests that a phylogenetic constraint on the size of the supratemporal fenestrae may be present in crocodyloids. In addition to exploring morphospace occupation, allometric trajectories of all extant taxa with available ontogenetic sequences were explored. The smallest extant taxa (O. tetraspis, P. palpebrosus, and P. trigonatus) demonstrate allometric trajectories that plot alongside the juveniles of the other taxa in this analysis. This may suggest that the small sizes of the skull tables in these species were achieved through paedomorphosis, or the maintenance of juvenile morphologies into adulthood.

Skeletal superstructure characteristics such as thick cranial vaults and well-developed supraorbital, infraorbital, zygomatic, temporal, and nuchal regions in hominins are collectively referred to as aspects of craniofacial robusticity. A better understanding of craniofacial robusticity is important because these features are regularly employed as individual traits in circumscribing fossil hominins as a means to separate other taxonomic groups from modern Homo sapiens even though the developmental and functional underpinnings of such traits are incompletely understood. The work of some researchers suggests that these features may be tied to a broader "robusticity complex", in which the expression of all the classically "robust" characteristics of the hominin cranium are intercorrelated and intrinsically linked. If true, then previous studies that have focused on characteristics of craniofacial robusticity as individual characters could be flawed. This study tests for the presence of an intercorrelated craniofacial robusticity complex in a geographically diverse sample of recent Homo sapiens using a morphological integration framework. Within this framework, significant levels of correlation between features of craniofacial robusticity are demonstrative of integration and thus a "robusticity complex", while non-significant levels of correlation provide evidence for modularity and therefore an independent expression of these traits. Craniofacial robusticity is examined among four anatomical areas of the human cranium including the frontal, zygomaxillary, temporal, and occipital regions. The expression of robusticity among these anatomical regions is quantified using three-dimensional coordinate landmark data in addition to classical discrete measures and is analyzed via two-block partial least squares regression analysis. The results show that levels of interaction between these major anatomical units are characterized by a range of correlation values with most obtaining statistical significance. These results frequently provide evidence for integration between subunits demonstrating at least partial evidence for a "robusticity complex" in the craniofacial skeleton of extant humans.