Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative condition that affects corticospinal and spinal motor neurons and leads to death within 30 months of symptom onset in half of all cases. It remains incurable and treatment is supportive. The genetic and molecular understanding of ALS has gone through a rapid expansion in recent years, notably with the discoveries of TDP-43, a heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein as a major component of neuronal inclusions in ALS, as well as the discovery of the C9orf72 hexanucleotide expansion as the most common genetic cause of this disease. This first part of this thesis addresses the question of which of the various pathological hallmarks of the C9orf72 Hexanucleotide Repeat Expansion (HRE) in autopsy material correlates best with the clinical presentation. The main finding is that TDP-43 distribution, rather than C9orf72 RNA foci or dipeptide aggregation in the brain, corresponds best with the areas relevant to the clinical subtype of ALS-FTD. Subsequently the role of TDP-43 was investigated in induced pluripotent stem cell derived motor neurons, and no evidence of the hallmarks of TDP-43 dysfunction, were seen in this model of the disease. No mislocalisation is found on immunofluorescence, and biochemical analysis shows no differences in insoluble species between the patient and control cell lines. In the final section, RNA sequencing was used to study the transcriptome of a BAC transgenic mouse carrying a human M337V transgene expressed at low levels, to identify early presymptomatic differences in gene expression. Interestingly, no changes were found in genes known to be associated with ALS through mutations, and the constitutive nuclear functions of TDP-43 in the regulation of splicing was maintained, prior to the emergence of a clinical phenotype in the mouse. This favours a gain of function mechanism for TDP-43 mutations in ALS.

abstract: The Erk/MAPK pathway plays a major role in cell growth, differentiation, and survival. Genetic mutations that cause dysregulation in this pathway can result in the development of Rasopathies, a group of several different syndromes including Noonan Syndrome, Costello Syndrome, and Neurofibromatosis Type-1. Since these mutations are germline and affect all cell types it is hard to differentiate the role that Erk/MAPK plays in each cell type. Previous research has shown that individual cell types utilize the Erk/MAPK pathway in different ways. For example, the morphological development of lower motor neuron axonal projections is Erk/MAPK-independent during embryogenesis, while nociceptive neuron projections require Erk/MAPK to innervate epidermal targets. Here, we tested whether Erk/MAPK played a role in the postnatal development of lower motor neurons during crucial periods of activity-dependent circuit modifications. We have generated Cre-dependent conditional Erk/MAPK mutant mice that exhibit either loss or gain of Erk/MAPK signaling specifically in ChAT:Cre expressing lower motor neurons. Importantly, we found that Erk/MAPK is necessary for the development of neuromuscular junction morphology by the second postnatal week. In contrast, we were unable to detect a significant difference in lower motor neuron development in Erk/MAPK gain-of-function mice. The data suggests that Erk/MAPK plays an important role in postnatal lower motor neuron development by regulating the morphological maturation of the neuromuscular junction. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biology 2017

No description available.

Au cours du processus neurodégénératif lié à la Sclérose Latérale Amyotrophique (SLA), les motoneurones innervant les muscles des membres sont très atteints tandis que ceux innervant les muscles axiaux sont relativement préservés. Les motoneurones diffèrent aussi dans leur réponse à plusieurs facteurs neurotrophiques (NTF). Je me suis intéressée aux mécanismes moléculaires déterminant la morphologie distincte et les réponses aux NTF de sous-populations de motoneurones pertinentes dans la SLA. J'ai démontré que les sous-populations de motoneurones murins innervant les muscles axiaux (MN-MMC) ou les muscles des membres (MN-LMC) ont de fortes différences morphologiques. Ces différences sont dues à une régulation différentielle de gènes codant pour la Péripherine et la Diacylglycérol kinase beta (DGK-β) qui sont régulés par les facteurs de transcription LIM-HD FoxP1/HB9. J'ai montré que les MN-LMC et les MN-MMC répondaient distinctement à trois facteurs neurotrophiques: le HGF (Hepatocyte Growth Factor), l'Artémine et le CNTF (Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor). J'ai étudié les motoneurones lombaires dans deux situations pathologiques: 1) les altérations de l'appareil de Golgi et du trafic axonal suite à la perte de TBCE (Tubulin Binding Cofactor E), 2) l'effet de l'augmentation de KCC2 à la membrane plasmique des motoneurones sur la transmission synaptique inhibitrice après lésion.Enfin, j'ai développé une nouvelle méthode de purification de motoneurones dérivés d'iPS (induced Pluripotent Stem Cell) humains en utilisant un vecteur rapporteur lentiviral Hb9::GFP et un anticorps dirigé contre le récepteur de faible affinité des neurotrophines, p75. / Muscles are highly vulnerable whereas motor neurons innervating axial muscles are relatively resistant. Motor neurons also seem to differ in their response to several neurotrophic factors (NTF). I investigated the molecular mechanisms determining the distinct morphology and the differential NTF response of ALS-relevant motor neuron subsets. First, I demonstrated that mouse lumbar motor neurons innervating either axial muscles (MMC-MN) or hindlimb muscles (LMC-MN) display remarkable morphological differences. These differences involve a differential regulation of genes coding for Peripherin and Diacylglycerol kinase-b (DGK-β) which are regulated by the transcription factors FoxP1/HB9. Second, I showed that LMC-MN and MMC-MN respond differentially to the three neurotrophic factors HGF (Hepatocyte Growth Factor), Artemin and CNTF (Ciliary NeuroTrophic Factor). Their differential survival is explained by the corresponding receptor gene expression in specific pools of MMC-MN and LMC-MN. Third, I studied lumbar motor neurons in two pathological conditions: 1) alteration of Golgi apparatus and axonal trafficking induced by loss of TBCE (Tubulin Binding Cofactor E) 2) the effect of KCC2 increase at motor neuron plasma membrane on inhibitory synaptic transmission after trauma.Finally, I developed a new FACS-based method for isolating human iPS (induced Pluripotent Stem Cell)-derived motor neurons with both an HB9::GFP reporter lentivirus and an antibody directed against the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor p75.

L’amyotrophie spinale infantile (SMA) est une maladie neurodégénérative rare, caractérisée par une perte progressive des motoneurones de la moelle épinière, et pour laquelle aucun traitement curatif n’est disponible. Cette maladie est causée par la mutation du gène SMN1 qui induit une diminution de l’expression de la protéine SMN. Depuis plusieurs des années, notre l’équipe examine les effets de l’exercice sur le développement ou le maintien de l’unité motrice dans des maladies neurodégénératives affectant spécifiquement le motoneurone. Ces études ont notamment permis de mettre en évidence que l’exercice physique pourrait avoir des effets bénéfiques pour l’amyotrophie spinale, dans un modèle de souris SMA de type 2 soumis à un exercice de course sur roue pendant 5 jours (Grondard et al., 2005). Dans notre étude, nous avons comparé les effets de deux programmes d’entraînement différents, d’une durée de 10 mois, basés sur un exercice de course ou sur un exercice de nage, sur des populations de souris SMA de type 3, la forme la moins sévère de la maladie. Dans nos conditions, la course est un exercice de faible intensité et de faible amplitude, mais qui induit plus de lésions musculaires, au contraire de la nage, comme le confirme les mesures de lactate et de créatine kinase circulants. Ces deux paramètres ont des valeurs anormalement hautes chez les souris SMA, suggérant des anomalies métaboliques et de fragilité musculaire, qui sont limitées par les deux programmes d’entraînement. Les analyses du comportement moteur indiquent également que les 10 mois d’entraînement améliorent significativement les capacités motrices des souris SMA, et notamment la résistance à la fatigue avec la nage. Comme attendu, la perte de 46% des motoneurones spinaux enregistrée à 12 mois chez les souris SMA sédentaires est significativement limitée par les deux types d’entrainement, mais avec des efficacités différentes sur les différentes sous‐populations de motoneurones spinaux. En effet, la course protège préférentiellement les motoneurones de faible surface et exprimant ERR‐β, assimilés à des motoneurones lents, et la nage les motoneurones de large surface et exprimant Chodl, assimilés à des motoneurones rapides. De manière surprenante, la neuroprotection induite par l’exercice est indépendante de l’expression de SMN dans la moelle épinière des souris SMA. Une étude de la forme et de la surface des jonctions neuromusculaires dans trois muscles du mollet, le soleus, le plantaris et le tibialis, et une étude du phénotype musculaire de ces mêmes trois muscles confirment le rôle bénéfique de l’entrainement mais aussi les effets différentiels des deux programmes, avec un effet plus important pour la nage. Les améliorations de l’unité motrice, induites par l’exercice, permettent un meilleur fonctionnement neuromusculaire, comme le suggère les mesures électrophysiologiques du muscle plantaire. Pris tous ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent qu’un exercice de nage, à haute intensité, dans des conditions anaérobies, et axé sur le recrutement des muscles extenseurs pourrait être bénéfique pour les patients SMA, notamment pour améliorer les capacités motrices et donc la qualité de vie des patients. / Objective: Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a group of autosomal recessive neurodegenerative diseases differing in their clinical outcome, characterized by the specific loss of spinal motor‐neurons, caused by insufficient levels of SMN protein expression. No cure is presently available for SMA. While physical exercise might represent a promising approach for alleviating SMA symptoms, the lack of data dealing with the effects of different exercise types on diseased motor‐units still precludes the use of exercise in SMA patients. Methods: We have evaluated the efficiency of two long‐term physical exercise paradigms, either based on high intensity swimming or on low intensity running, in alleviating SMA symptoms in a mild type 3 SMA‐like mouse model. Results: We found that a 10‐month physical training induced significant benefits in terms of resistance to muscle damages, energetic metabolism, muscle fatigue and motor behavior. Both exercise types significantly enhanced motor‐neuron survival, independently of SMN expression, leading to the maintenance of neuromuscular junctions and skeletal muscle phenotypes, particularly in the soleus, plantaris and tibialis of trained mice. Most importantly, both exercises significantly improved neuromuscular excitability properties. Besides, all these training‐induced benefits are quantitatively and qualitatively related to the specific characteristics of each exercise, suggesting that the related neuroprotection is strongly dependent on the specific activation of some motor‐neuron subpopulations. Interpretation: Taken together, the present data show significant long‐term exercise benefits in a mild type 3 SMA context and provide important clues for designing rehabilitation programs in patients.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a genetic disorder characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy and death of motor neurons in humans. Although almost all cases of SMA occur due to mutations in a gene called survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1), SMA patients present with a wide range of severities of the symptoms. The most severe cases never achieve any developmental motor milestone and die within a few years after birth. On the other hand, mild cases of SMA have a normal life span and show trivial motor deficits. This suggests the role of other factors (rather than the function of SMN1) in the outcome of the disease. Indeed, the copy number of an almost identical gene, called SMN2, is the main determining factor for the severity of SMA. In addition, a few other genes (e.g. Plastin 3) are proposed as disease modifiers in SMA. SMN1 is a housekeeping gene, but due to unknown reasons, the most prominent pathologies in SMA are atrophy of myofibers and death of motor neurons. However, recent studies showed that some other cell types are also affected in the course of SMA disease. We investigated the alterations of central synapses in Smn2B/- mice, a model of SMA. We did not observe any degeneration of central synapses in these mice until a post symptomatic stage. However, mass spectrometry (MS) analysis on isolated synaptosomes from spinal cords of these animals revealed widespread alterations in the proteome of their central synapses at a presymptomatic stage. Functional cluster analysis on MS results suggested that several molecular pathways are affected within synapses of spinal cords of Smn2B/- mice prior to the onset of any obvious pathology in their motor units. The affected molecular pathways are involved in basic cell biological functions including energy production, protein synthesis, cytoskeleton regulation and intracellular trafficking. We showed that the levels of several proteins involved in actin cytoskeleton regulation are altered in synaptosomes isolated from spinal cords of Smn2B/- mice. More investigations are required to determine the exact functional abnormalities of affected pathways in central synapses of these mice. We also generated congenic Smn2B/- mice in two different mouse genetic backgrounds; FVB and BL6. Using a systematic approach, we showed that congenic Smn2B/- mice in the FVB background show a more severe SMA phenotype than Smn2B/- mice in a BL6 background. Smn2B/- mice in the FVB background had a shorter survival, higher rate of weight loss, earlier and more severe pathologic changes compared to Smn2B/- mice in the BL6 background. We investigated the levels of several actin binding proteins in spinal cords of these animals and found higher induction of plastin 3 in Smn2B/- mice in the BL6 background. More investigations are underway to determine the role of plastin 3 in the severity of the phenotype of Smn2B/- mice, and to find other possible SMA modifier genes in these animals.

This study demonstrates the direct delivery of plasmid gene constructs into spinal motor neurons utilizing retrograde axoplasmic transport. The plasmid vectors contained the Lac Z gene under the control of both the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) and Simian virus (SV)40 promoters. β-Galactosidase expression was observed in α and γ motor neurons by histochemical staining following direct injection into the sciatic nerve or gastrocnemius muscle. The presence of LacZ gene constructs was confirmed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The ability to introduce gene constructs into motor neurons allows for the study of gene regulation and permits the development of gene therapy strategies for motor neuron diseases including the spinal muscular atrophies (SMA) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

No description available.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neuromuscular disease caused by reduced levels of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. SMA results in degeneration of motor neurons, progressive muscle atrophy, and death in severe forms of the disease. Currently, there is a lack of inexpensive, readily accessible, accurate biomarkers to study the disease. Furthermore, the current FDA approved therapeutic is neither 100 % effective nor accessible for all patients, thus more research is required. Tiny cell derived vesicles known as exosomes have been evaluated in an attempt to identify novel biomarkers for many disease states and have also shown therapeutic promise through their ability to deliver protein and nucleic acid to recipient cells. The research presented herein investigates whether (1) the level of SMN protein in exosomes isolated from the medium of cells, and serum from animal models and patients of SMA is indicative of disease, to serve as a biomarker for monitoring disease progression and therapeutic efficacy; (2) SMN-protein loaded exosomes can be utilized to deliver SMN protein to SMN-deficient cells; (3) adenoviral vectors are effective at creating SMN protein-loaded exosomes in situ for body wide distribution of SMN protein. This research has shown SMN protein is naturally released in extracellular vesicles, and the level of exosomal SMN protein is reflective of the disease state. Exosomes can also be modified to hold enhanced levels of SMN protein and deliver them to both the cytoplasm and nucleus of SMN-deficient cells. Furthermore, adenoviral vectors expressing luciferase-tagged SMN1 cDNA, targeted to the liver, results in SMN protein-loaded exosomes and detectable luciferase activity, body-wide. Thus, exosomes present as an effective biomarker and potentially a novel approach to treat SMA.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an inherited neuromuscular disorder, which causes dysfunction/loss of lower motor neurons and muscle weakness as well as atrophy. While SMA is primarily considered as a motor neuron disease, recent data suggests that survival motor neuron (SMN) deficiency in muscle causes intrinsic defects. We systematically profiled secreted proteins from control and SMN deficient muscle cells with two combined metabolic labeling methods and mass spectrometry. From the screening, we found lower levels of C1q/TNF-related protein 3 (CTRP3) in the SMA muscle secretome and confirmed that CTRP3 levels are indeed reduced in muscle tissues and serum of an SMA mouse model. We identified that CTRP3 regulates neuronal protein synthesis including SMN via mTOR pathway. Furthermore, CTRP3 enhances axonal outgrowth and protein synthesis rate, which are well-known impaired processes in SMA motor neurons. Our data revealed a new molecular mechanism by which muscles regulate the physiology of motor neurons via secreted molecules. Dysregulation of this mechanism contributes to the pathophysiology of SMA.