Thesis (M.S.)--Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1989. / Vita. Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 82). Also available via the Internet.

Thesis (MS)--Montana State University--Bozeman, 2008. / Typescript. Chairperson, Graduate Committee: Jeffrey C. Mosley. Includes bibliographical references.

Four racial stocks of Black-tailed deer, captured as fawns in their native habitat, were raised under controlled nutritional conditions at facilities of the University of British Columbia. Qualitatively complete liquid and solid diets were fed isocallorically on two planes of nutrition; a high plane designed to evoke expression of the maximum genetic potential for growth; a low plane designed to reduce growth to a minimum. Body weights and certain linear measurements were recorded at intervals and the resultant data were used for comparisons of growth parameters related to sex, plane of nutrition and racial origin. Weight growth curves were found to fluctuate seasonally in correspondance to changes in physiological conditions associated with reproduction. In addition, it was found that growth in both sexes was suppressed by the winter environment in spite of constancy in the daily diet. Low plane deer showed positive growth responses during the winter thereby indicating that growth is not suppressed to the same degree in animals which have not attained their seasonal maximum weights through undernourishment. Linear growth curves exhibited no seasonal depressions as they increased continuously from birth to their respective mature sizes. In contrast to body weight, the mature size of all linear measurements, except chest girth were not significantly affected by the plane of nutrition. The rates of growth, however, were reduced by the low plane thereby increasing the age at which mature size was attained. The relative proportions at mature size of linear measurements were not affected by the plane of nutrition. Slight alterations in proportions were noted for several ratios but the only significant difference occurred in the chest girth/hind leg length ratio. The development of significant differences between planes of nutrition with regard to this ratio indicates that it might be useful in quantitatively determining condition in wild populations. Significant sexual differences in the head length/head width ratio at maturity showed that the head length did not differ in size whereas the remaining measurements were reduced in magnitude for female deer. Thus the components of head length appear to escape the limitations imposed by the female upon growth of all other parts measured. Parameters of growth such as the instantaneous relative rate of growth, the instantaneous relative rate of decline in growth, mature size, age and weight at inflection, age at maturity, and others have been computed for each race, sex and plane of nutrition. Parameters derived from the growth patterns of all four races demonstrate that each race differs from the others in one or more aspects of their growth response in a given set of environmental conditions. The Mule deer is potentially the largest and fastest growing, followed in turn by the Sitka Black-tail, the Californian stock and the Vancouver Island stock of the Columbian Black-tailed deer. This and other characteristics of growth indicate that the Californian and Vancouver Island stocks of the Columbian Black-tailed deer may be separable at the sub-specific level. No racial differences could be shown, however, in the efficiencies of the growth processes. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Based upon the premise that growth (weight change) is of a seasonally cyclical nature in the deer (Odocoileus), and that this change is primarily in the fat compartments of the body, a study of the plasma lipids is undertaken to ascertain if they reflect the seasonal changes. The feed intake is measured throughout the experimental period. Preliminary studies are carried out on the Wistar rat to develop a technique and facilitate a quick prognosis of the assumption. In this study, it is observed that because of the different sex effects plasma cholesterol levels must be determined. The prepubertal growth in the male and female rat is characterized by a phasic type of growth upon which is imposed another pattern of weight accretion also of a phasic, but more frequent nature. The larger pattern of growth is referred to as the Main phasic period of growth, and the more frequent one as the Interim phasic period of growth. The weight, feed and lipid relationships of the female Main phases are similar to those of the male Interim phases, and both are believed to result from the energy balance required for weight accretion. The same relationships, in the female Interim phases are similar to those of the male Main phases, and to these are attributed the occurrence of sexual development. Similar observations on the sexually mature animals indicate, in the female, that the Interim phasic type of growth is synchronous with the estrus cycle. Whereas, in the male no definite conclusions are made. In the deer study six, year old, animals of the species Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Vancouver Island genotype) are observed for a period of twelve months. In both sexes weight increases from approximately March to October when a decrease in feed intake and weight gain occurs. In the earlier period of weight gain (March - August) both sexes increase their feed intake, but the plasma lipids remain the same, that is a high plasma 'fat' and a low plasma cholesterol. In the latter part of the weight gain period, August to October, both sexes decrease their feed intake accompanied by a rise in plasma 'fat', but no change occurs in the level of plasma cholesterol. At the point of maximum gain, in October, a difference between the sexes occurs. The males decrease their feed intake further and the plasma 'fats' fall. Whereas the females increase their feed intake and the plasma "fats' rise. Both sexes show a marked increase in the plasma cholesterol level. After October, the rut period ensues and is characterized by a loss of weight and a low feed intake in both sexes. The latter regardless of an adequate supply. In the males, the period of weight loss extends to December, and an expected rise in the plasma 'fat' is seen in only one of the three animals, the others being missed because bleeding is not carried out between October and December. In the latter month the plasma cholesterol is significantly lower than in October. In the females, the period of weight loss extends to March, and is never as extensive as in the males. The plasma 'fat' levels rise in December and fall in March when the nadir of the growth curve is reached. In this period the plasma cholesterol levels are varied and appear to depend upon the estrus phase of the animal. By March, the feed intake is increased in both sexes, but i t is not until afterwards that weight accretion begins. The plasma lipid levels are low in all the animals. It is concluded that weight and plasma lipid changes are closely allied to the yearly recrudence and regression of gonadal activity. The plasma 'fat' levels rise to augment the caloric requirements of the animal if the feed intake is not adequate, both when weight is being gained and lost. Whereas the plasma cholesterol appears to reflect the state of sexual activity. That is the level is raised in the 'rut’ period, otherwise it is low. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

Some of the factors that influence the blood reducing sugar level in the black-tailed deer Odeeoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson) (Vancouver Island genotype), have been investigated. The distribution of reducing sugar in the blood of these animals was also examined. It was found that: feed intake during the hour preceeding blood letting, short periods of fast, nature of the feed, and sex of the animal apparently have no effect on the level of blood reducing sugar in deer. Blood samples taken in the evening generally had a higher reducing sugar level than those taken earlier in the day. The means used to restrain the animals during the blood letting procedure was also found to have a marked influence on the level of blood reducing sugar. Deer restrained by physical force exhibited significantly higher and more variable blood sugar levels than those immobilized with succinylcholine. The length of time required to draw a blood sample from an animal also influenced the blood sugar level. The longer the time to let a sample, the higher the blood sugar level in the sample. The results indicate that the degree of excitement, fear, and pain experienced by the animals preceeding and during the blood letting procedure was the principal cause of variability found in the level of blood reducing sugar. No reducing sugar could be detected in the erythrocytes of these deer. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

A review of the literature on black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus Richardson) feeding habits reveals considerable variation among animals, locations, and seasons. Processes affecting food selection, however, are poorly understood. Optimal foraging theory was explored as a means of predicting deer foraging behaviour and diet breadth. Because of complex constraints and objectives involved in predicting diet selection, food preference was determined under ad libitum conditions. Feeding behaviour of two deer was studied in a 0.5-ha enclosure to examine the effects of density and distribution of their preferred foods on diet selection. When deer had to search for food, diet selection remained the same as that under ad libitum conditions as long as preferred food was abundant. Deer nearly exhausted their highly preferred food before switching to lower ranked foods. This switch was gradual, as deer continued to search for preferred food. The amount of preferred food already eaten during a trial was positively correlated with the time that animals would continue searching before switching to lower-ranked foods. Switching was related to the amount and type of food encountered and not to the amount of food in the pen. Dispersion of the preferred food (clumped versus unclumped) had no significant effect on the amount of food eaten, but did significantly influence the types of food encountered by one of the two animals. Both animals became more efficient (intake per distance travelled) at finding preferred foods with increasing experience with a specific distribution of food. Animals increased their efficiency of finding apples by repeating searching patterns which had been effective during previous trials. Performance was poor, however, when distributions were changed. When preferred food was abundant, platforms containing preferred food were not always completely cleared of food the first time a platform was visited. Intake rates of non-preferred foods tended to increase with declining abundance of preferred food. This increase was not caused by changes in the amount of non-preferred food eaten at feeding stations, but rather by the rate at which non-preferred feeding stations were visited. The influence of intraspecific plant variation on food habit studies and the utility of preference indices are discussed. I conclude that foraging bouts are highly dynamic and that some foraging questions may not be adequately answered if this internal variation is ignored. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Biomass of arboreal lichens used as winter food by blacktailed deer was studied. Three methods were used to assess abundance of Alectoria sarraentosa and Bryoria spp. Lichen biomass was measured by sampling the lichens from felled trees. A system of visual estimates of lichen abundance was developed and related to biomass estimates obtained by sampling. A predictive equation {Y = 158.03 {A x CL), where Y is lichen biomass, A is an estimate of lichen cover on a portion of the tree crown, and CL is crown length; n = 40; Sy,x = 376,89; r2 = 0,75) was used to extrapolate lichen biomass values from sampled trees to unsampled trees. The value of large-scale colour infrared air photography as a tool for inventorying lichen abundance was assessed, using densitometry and photo interpretation. Some positive relationships with lichen abundance were found using each method, but neither densitometry nor photo interpretation was demonstrated to have strong potential for use in inventorying abundance of arboreal lichens. Biomass of Alectoria (sensu lato) on the 14 plots studied ranged from 21 to 1528 kg/ha. Physical and vegetative characteristics of the plots were measured and related to lichen abundance. Taken together, slope, aspect, and elevation accounted for 82 percent of the variation in lichen abundance. Forest productivity was negatively related to lichen abundance, lithin the range of sites studied, Alectoria (s.1.) was most abundant on moderate to steep south-facing slopes, at elevations above 500 m, where tree growth was poor. To assess availability of lichens and their utilization by deer, litterfall was measured inside and outside exclosures on three sites where levels of deer use in winter were known. The relationships between litter deposition rates and weather were examined. Quantities of Alectoria (s.1.) litter were 69.9 kg/ha/180 days in a severe winter range area, 151.2 kg/ha/180 days in a mild winter range area, and 31.9 kg/ha/180 days in a poor winter range area. On all three sites, significantly more (p ≤ 0.05) Alectoria litter was present inside than outside exclosures; guantities of non-lichen litter did not differ significantly. Utilization of Alectoria was 37, 53, and 52 percent of available guantities on the three sites, respectively. The relationship between lichen abundance and selection of winter habitat by blacktailed deer was assessed, based on pellet group counts, track counts, and the data of other investigators. Areas selected by deer as winter range tended to be moderate or high in lichen abundance. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Nevada, Reno, 2006. / "December, 2006." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-129). Online version available on the World Wide Web.

I evaluated methods of preventing desert mule deer from drowning in the concrete-lined Mohawk Canal, southwest Arizona, and monitored the movements of deer using this canal. A 15 km study section of the Mohawk Canal where most previous drownings occurred was checked 478 times from June 1982 through September 1985 and 5,307 deer-canal interactions (DCI) were recorded. Ninety-eight percent of the DCI were recorded from April through September. Deer fell into this canal ≥ 279 times: 116 escaped via steps, 79 via ramps, and 50 escaped unaided. Only 5 deer drowned in sections of the Mohawk Canal with escape structures; 7 deer and 2 bighorn sheep drowned in sections without escape structures. Deer approached the canal to drink, not to cross. Maintaining depths to water of ≤ 30 cm will reduce the number of deer falling into the canal. The Mohawk Canal escape structures are adequately designed and spaced to prevent most summer mortalities. Deer use of 2 water catchments build to provide alternate water sources for deer drinking from the Mohawk Canal increased significantly each year. Each time a deer drank from these catchments was one less opportunity for a deer to fall into the canal. I monitored desert mule deer movements in a xeric region of the Sonoran Desert from October 1982 through November 1984 to determine the influence water availability and rainfall patterns have on deer movements. Ten of 15 radio-collared deer monitored for >1 year migrated to areas with permanent water in April or May and left those areas soon after summer rains started. Deer did not migrate to areas receiving the most summer rainfall. Home range sizes are larger (annual x = 145.2 km², range = 47.0 - 566.6 km²) than any previously reported for mule deer.

Thesis (M.S. in natural resource sciences)--Washington State University, December 2009. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on Jan. 21, 2010). "Department of Natural Resource Sciences." Includes bibliographical references.