The advent of GPS tracking technology has revolutionized the field of wildlife research. The ability to obtain fine-scale location data from collared animals allows for increased understanding of life-history events that have previously been difficult to research. An excellent candidate species for telemetry-based research is mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Mule deer are an important species economically due to their position as a harvested species. Additionally, they play an important role in the ecosystems they occupy; therefore information regarding important life history events would improve conservation and management efforts for this species. Our objectives were to use GPS tracking technology to explore two important life-history events in mule deer, parturition and natal dispersal. We developed and tested movement-based methods for detecting parturition in mule deer (Chapter One) and we used movement patterns to quantify the influence of various factors on dispersal of mule deer (Chapter Two). For Chapter One, we hypothesized that patterns of maternal movement could be used to predict the status and timing of parturition of mule deer. In order to test this hypothesis, we captured, collared, and confirmed parturition for 90 female deer in the state of Utah. We used the known dates of parturition to test the accuracy and precision of six different movement--based methods to identify parturition. We found that methods differed in both accuracy and precision, with the highest performing method displaying 98% accuracy and 93% precision (within seven days). For Chapter Two, we hypothesized that several factors (e.g. inbreeding avoidance, competition for mates, competition for resources, and migratory learning) would influence dispersal of mule deer. In order to evaluate the relative importance of these factors, we captured, collared, and tracked 303 six-month old mule deer fawns over the course of five years. We found evidence that inbreeding avoidance and migratory learning both influenced dispersal behavior of mule deer, while we found no evidence that competition for mates or resources influenced dispersal in this species.

Accurate estimates of parameters and demographic rates of wildlife populations are crucial to management and conservation. One parameter of interest is age because it influences multiple demographic rates and behaviors including reproduction, dispersal, migration, and disease transmission. There are a number of methods used to estimate ages of wildlife. One of the most common methods used for mammals is evaluation of patterns in dental eruption and tooth wear. In the first chapter, we evaluate the accuracy associated with estimates of age from dental eruption and patterns of tooth wear for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). In the second chapter, we use age estimates validated within the first chapter to explore how age and other maternal factors may influence number of offspring born per litter in mule deer. We further test relative support for two common hypotheses--terminal investment and reproductive restraint--regarding the relationship between age and reproductive investment in this species. Our results will inform conservation, management, and research efforts associated with mule deer.

Roads pose two central problems for wildlife: wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVCs) and habitat fragmentation. Wildlife exclusion fencing can reduce WVCs but can exacerbate fragmentation. In Chapter 1, I summarize the relevant studies addressing these two problems, with a focus on large mammals in North America. Chapters 2 and 3 summarize field assessments of technologies to reduce WVCs and maintain connectivity, specifically jumpout ramps and underpasses, along Highway 101 near San Luis Obispo, CA. In a fenced highway, some animals inevitably breach the fence and become trapped, which increases the risk of a wildlife-vehicle collision. Earthen escape ramps, or “jumpouts”, can allow the trapped animal to escape the highway corridor. Few studies have quantified wildlife use of jumpouts, and none for >2 years. We used wildlife cameras to quantify wildlife use of 4 jumpouts from 2012-2017. Mule deer were 88% percent of our detections and jumped out 20% of the time. After accounting for pseudoreplication, 33% of the events were independent events, and 2 groups of deer accounted for 41% of all detections at the top of the jumpout. Female deer were 86% of the detections and were much more likely than males to return to the jumpout multiple times. This is the first study to document use of jumpouts for more than 3 years, the first to account for pseudoreplication, and the first to quantify differences in jumpout use between male and female mule deer. We recommend a jumpout height between 1.75m-2m for mule deer to increase the jumpout success rate. Chapter 3 addresses factors that may affect the use of undercrossings by mule deer and other wildlife. Wildlife crossings combined with wildlife exclusion fencing have been shown to be the most effective method to reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions while maintaining ecological connectivity. Although several studies have quantified wildlife use of undercrossings, very few have exceeded 24 months, and the factors affecting carnivores use of the undercrossings remain unclear. We quantified mule deer, black bear, mountain lion, and bobcat use of 11 undercrossings along Highway 101 near San Luis Obispo, California from 2012-2017. We constructed zero-inflated Poisson general linear models on the monthly activity of our focal species using underpass dimensionality, distance to cover, substrate, human activity, and location relative to the wildlife exclusion fence as predictor variables. We accounted for temporal variation, as well as spatial variation by quantifying the landscape resistance near each undercrossing. We found that deer almost exclusively used the larger underpasses whereas the carnivores were considerably less selective. Bears used undercrossings more that were within the wildlife exclusion fence, whereas mountain lion activity was higher outside the wildlife exclusion fence. Bobcat activity was highest and most widespread, and was negatively associated with distance to cover. Regional connectivity is most important for bear and mountain lion, and the surrounding habitat may be the most important predictor for their use of undercrossings. We recommend placing GPS collars on our focal species to more clearly document fine-scale habitat selection near the highway.

Mule deer are an important rangeland grazer, large prey species, and game animal for the state of Utah, so herd size is monitored and managed actively. A significant cause of population decline is poor overwintering survival, including from the lack of available forage during winter months. Mule deer energy storage is correlated with greater overwintering success, so physical estimates of energy storage including body condition score (BCS), rump fat (RF), and loin thickness (LT), can be used to track and predict a herd's health. Current methods of collecting deer information are costly, time consuming, and cause physical stress to deer, so here we sought to test if a microbiome analysis could be used to predict deer overwintering success. We analyzed nearly 1000 fecal samples collected from deer in Utah over a five-year period. We found that the microbiome composition of these samples shared characteristics with published reports of other reported ruminant species. Also, the location and time when the samples were collected significantly influenced mule deer microbiota composition and abundance. We found that there is a relationship between microbes and health measures (BCS, RF, LT), including some microbial abundances that could predict the health measures of mule deer several months ahead of time. There were also microbial groups whose abundances were significantly correlated with the latitude and elevation of the deer. Finally, a longitudinal analysis on a subset of sampled deer produced slightly different results than the broad analysis of all samples, including suggesting that some of the differences in microbiota composition with time may have been related more to sampling distinct deer at different time points, rather than that the deer microbiota composition changed with time. . These results suggest possible candidate microbial taxa for use in developing assays to replace current methods of measuring and tracking deer health.

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) from the US Air Force Academy (USAF A) at Colorado Springs, Colorado have shown antler fractures and tooth lesions. Brittle bones and tooth lesions have been associated with high ingestion of fluorides. The present study compared prevalence and severity of tooth lesions with fluoride content in teeth, bones and antlers of mule deer from USAF A with deer from other two areas in Colorado. Mule deer tissues were collected during 1993-1995 from: USAF A (N=262), Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site (pCMS, N=24), and game management units (GMU's) in northwestern Colorado (N=16). The severity of tooth lesions was rated using a 0 (normal) to 5 (severe hypoplasia) scale. In all areas the median lesion score was 1; the highest score in USAFA was 5 vs. 3 in the other areas. Median fluodide concentrations (Jlg/g d.w.) were higher (p<0.002) in second incisors and bones of mule deer collected at the USAFA (669.9, N=246 incisors, 744.5, N=247 bones) than in deer from PCMS (507.3; 494.7, N=24) and GMU's (426.2,466.2, N=16), respectively. Within the USAF A, median fluoride concentrations in teeth and bones were lower (P<O. 001) in fawns and yearlings than in older animals and in males (> I. 5 years) than in females. Median fluoride concentrations were lower (P<O. 001) in deciduous than in permanent teeth. Median concentrations of fluoride were higher (P<O.OO1) in non-erupted teeth than in deciduous teeth and bone indicating a high rate of accumulating fluoride in growing hard tissue. Fluoride concentration was higher (P<O. 00 1) in teeth with lesions than without lesions. / Master of Science

Mule deer (<i>Odocoileus hemionus</i>) population dynamics, movements, and habitat use were studied on the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site in southeastern Colorado during January 1983-December 1984. Thirty-eight adults and 28 fawns were radio collared, and 35 adults were color collared or ear tagged. Population estimates were 365 and 370 deer for 1983 and 1984, respectively. The sex ratio (yearling and adult) was 60 males: 100 females. Adult female pregnancy rate was 95%; the mean litter size for females over 1.5 years was 1.7 fawns. Annual fawn survival was 29% in 1983 and 22% in 1984. Coyote (<i>Canis Iatram</i>) predation was responsible for 76% of fawn mortality. Adult survival was 88% in 1983 and 87% in 1984; coyote predation accounted for 67%, and hunting for 33% of the annual adult mortality. The calculated annual rate of increase (λ) was 1.01, indicating a stable population. Seasonal home range size differed (p < 0.05) between males and females only in the fall. Females preferred pinyon-juniper woodland in all seasons, and shrub grassland in winter, summer and fall; proportional use of woodland/open grassland and shrub/open grassland edge was greater than proportional availability. Males preferred pinyon-juniper woodland and avoided open grassland in all seasons. Fawns preferred shrub grassland and shrub/open grassland edge; they avoided cholla/open grassland edge. Fawns selected bed sites with greater (P < 0.05) concealment cover at all 0.5 m intervals up to 2 m in height, and greater ground cover of trees, shrubs, and grasses (P < 0.01) than random sites. / Master of Science

During January 1986 - September 1988 I studied the behavioral and demographic responses of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to military activity on the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site in southeastern Colorado. Military training was initiated on the site during August 1985 and recurred approximately 3 times yearly for periods of a month. During a maneuver, 3/7 of the site was used for training in accordance with a rotational land use schedule. I radio-collared fifty adult deer and 49 fawns. Female seasonal home ranges were larger in maneuver than non maneuver areas. During the nonsummer period female home ranges were larger in previous-maneuver than non maneuver areas. Fawn summer home ranges were larger in maneuver than previous-maneuver areas. Male home range sizes differed only for 50% harmonic mean transformation annual home ranges; bucks in maneuver areas had larger home ranges than in non maneuver areas. Female deer in maneuver areas exhibited significant home area shifts between pre maneuver and maneuver periods more frequently (40%) than did deer in non maneuver (control) areas (12.5%). Mule deer in military training areas may have responded to human harassment, alteration of security cover, or destruction of the forage base. I suggest that deer may exhibit a more negative response to unpredictable than predictable disturbances. Demographic data were compared to previous baseline data (1983-1984). Buck annual survival rates did not differ during 1983-1988; doe annual survival rates also were similar during this period. Summer fawn survival differed only between 1984 and 1987, being higher in 1987. All fawn mortalities either were caused or scavenged by coyotes (Canis latrans). Pregnancy rates and fawn production ranged from 88-96% and 1.4-1.7 fawns/doe, respectively. Also, fawn:doe ratios were similar during 1983-1988. Although population estimates increased between 1984 and early 1988, the population declined during late 1888. Two important confounding factors existed on the site during 1983-1988 which make it difficult to assess the effect of military activity on mule deer demographics. First, extensive cattle grazing occurred prior to acquisition of the site and continued through most of the baseline study. Secondly, coyote control was conducted during 1987-1988. These factors may have allowed the deer population to perform better under disturbance conditions. Aerial quadrat sampling was preferred over line transect sampling for censusing mule deer in low density pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus monosperma) habitat. Management recommendations included training restrictions during fawning season and in severe winters, as well as revegetating disturbed areas. / Master of Science

This study examined the feeding responses of mule deer to a system of spring livestock grazing. The specific purposes were 1) to determine botanical composition of diets selected by mule deer on a winter range subjected to previous spring grazing by sheep compared to one with no sheep grazing and 2) to develop a basis for predicting selection of individual plants by deer, based on physical characteristics of the plants and the species and physical proximity of associated plants. The study was conducted within the framework of a completely randomized experimental design with two treatments. Variables controlled for each unit of observation were grazing treatment (prior sheep grazing and no sheep grazing), sampling periods within the winter (early winter and late winter), weeks (four within each period), days (four within each week), sampling times (four each day), age of animal (fawns and adults) and identity of observer. Two adjacent 2.4 ha pastures were fenced. A sheep grazing treatment of 150 sheep days per ha was applied in late May, 1974, to one pasture. Five hand-reared mule deer were placed in each pasture for two six-week periods, one in early winter and the other in late winter. Diets were quantified by a mouthful count technique and hand plucking representative mouthfuls of each species consumed. Plant physical characteristics were measured while following grazing deer. For each plant encountered by the deer, the following variables were measured: species name, distance from the deer, height and width, degree of prior utilization, proportion of current live plant material present, species of and distance to nearest neighboring plant, and consumption or non-consumption of the plant by the deer. Differences were found between treatments in forage availability and abundance, and in botanical composition of diets selected by mule deer. The dietary differences were attributed to a greater proportion of current year's bitterbrush forage being available in the sheep grazed treatment and to reduced interference there from standing dead grass in selection of preferred green grasses and forbs. Deer diets in the sheep grazed pasture were higher in herbaceous plant material than in the deer pasture. Seasonal dietary changes were due to reduced plant availability by deer grazing, snow cover, and plant phenology. Major changes were an increase in shrub consumption through the early winter and well into the late winter periods, and a simultaneous decline in herbaceous species consumption. Snow melt and spring green-up permitted a sudden shift to forbs and grasses near the end of the late winter period. Plant attributes capable of predicting consumption of individual plants included 1) degree of prior utilization, 2) amount of current live plant material present, 3) distance of plant from grazing animal, 3) species of nearest plant, and 4) plant height. These characteristics probably exerted their influence indirectly through olfactory and tactile stimuli to the deer. The use of these attributes to place plants in consumed and not-consumed groups indicated that grazing deer probably cue on fairly specific plant characters in selecting plants for consumption.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) has infected wild deer of Saskatchewan for at least the past 10 years. Disease management plans have evolved over the years, but without information on mule deer (<i>Odocoileus hemionus</i>) habits and movements in the grasslands of southern Saskatchewan. We radio-collared and monitored the survival and movements of 206 mule deer from 2006 to 2009. Long distance movements by deer have potential to transfer disease to previously naïve areas. Survival rates had not yet been evaluated in this area; baseline data will provide a useful measure for population-level impacts of the disease in the future.<p> Juvenile dispersals and adult migrations were contrasted from 4 study areas along the South Saskatchewan River. Dispersal distance (median = 22.8 km, n = 14) was similar to migration distance (median = 16.0 km, n = 49). Median migration distance was similar between males (15.7 km, n = 51) and females (19.7 km, n = 65). Obligatory migrants were more likely to be female. Deer from an area of extensive grassland were more likely to be migratory than their counterparts in fragmented grassland of an agricultural landscape. Maximum migration and dispersal distances were 113 km and 195 km, respectively. Movement paths of 33 GPS-collared deer were best explained by high terrain ruggedness values and proximity to grassland.<p> Seasonal survival rates showed that deer had lowest survival in autumn months during hunting season. Juveniles had lower survival than adults in all seasons. Harvest regime changes in 2008 improved the autumn survival of adult females but adult males had lower survival than in 2007. Body condition of captured deer was evaluated from residuals of mass-length regression. Cox regression analyses suggested that deer in good body condition (75th percentile) were half as likely to die and that those in very poor body condition (10th percentile) were twice as likely to die. Radio collars that weighed > 2% of body mass negatively affected survival and we recommend future researchers take this into consideration. <p> Survival, dispersal, and migration rates and patterns are crucial parameters in modeling CWD in local mule deer populations. Saskatchewan wildlife managers aim to prevent CWD spread into new areas, and can use mule deer movement orientations to target surveillance accordingly. White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i>) movements are briefly discussed; further knowledge of their movements is required for CWD management in all of Saskatchewan.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) has infected wild deer of Saskatchewan for at least the past 10 years. Disease management plans have evolved over the years, but without information on mule deer (<i>Odocoileus hemionus</i>) habits and movements in the grasslands of southern Saskatchewan. We radio-collared and monitored the survival and movements of 206 mule deer from 2006 to 2009. Long distance movements by deer have potential to transfer disease to previously naïve areas. Survival rates had not yet been evaluated in this area; baseline data will provide a useful measure for population-level impacts of the disease in the future.<p> Juvenile dispersals and adult migrations were contrasted from 4 study areas along the South Saskatchewan River. Dispersal distance (median = 22.8 km, n = 14) was similar to migration distance (median = 16.0 km, n = 49). Median migration distance was similar between males (15.7 km, n = 51) and females (19.7 km, n = 65). Obligatory migrants were more likely to be female. Deer from an area of extensive grassland were more likely to be migratory than their counterparts in fragmented grassland of an agricultural landscape. Maximum migration and dispersal distances were 113 km and 195 km, respectively. Movement paths of 33 GPS-collared deer were best explained by high terrain ruggedness values and proximity to grassland.<p> Seasonal survival rates showed that deer had lowest survival in autumn months during hunting season. Juveniles had lower survival than adults in all seasons. Harvest regime changes in 2008 improved the autumn survival of adult females but adult males had lower survival than in 2007. Body condition of captured deer was evaluated from residuals of mass-length regression. Cox regression analyses suggested that deer in good body condition (75th percentile) were half as likely to die and that those in very poor body condition (10th percentile) were twice as likely to die. Radio collars that weighed > 2% of body mass negatively affected survival and we recommend future researchers take this into consideration. <p> Survival, dispersal, and migration rates and patterns are crucial parameters in modeling CWD in local mule deer populations. Saskatchewan wildlife managers aim to prevent CWD spread into new areas, and can use mule deer movement orientations to target surveillance accordingly. White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i>) movements are briefly discussed; further knowledge of their movements is required for CWD management in all of Saskatchewan.