A variety of techniques are available to enable the fabrication of photonic crystal structures. Multi-beam-interference lithography (MBIL) is a relatively new technique which offers many advantages over more traditional means of fabrication. Unlike the more common fabrication methods such as optical and electron-beam lithography, MBIL is a method that can produce both two- and three-dimensional large-area photonic crystal structures for use in the infrared and visible light regimes. While multi-beam-interference lithography represents a promising methodology for the fabrication of PC structures, there has been an incomplete understanding of MBIL itself. The research in this thesis focuses on providing a more complete, systematic description of MBIL in order to demonstrate its full capabilities. Analysis of both three- and four-beam interference is investigated and described in terms of contrast and crystallography. The concept of a condition for primitive-lattice-vector-direction equal contrasts} is introduced in this thesis. These conditions are developed as nonlinear constraints when optimizing absolute contrast for producing lithographically useful interference patterns (meaning high contrast and localized intensity extrema). By understanding the richness of possibilities within MBIL, a number of useful interference patterns are found that can be created in a straightforward manner. These patterns can be both lithographically useful and structurally useful (providing interference contours that can define wide-bandgap photonic crystals). Included within this investigation are theoretical calculations of band structures for photonic crystals that are fabricatable through MBIL. The resulting calculations show that not only do most MBIL-defined structures exhibit similar performance characteristics compared to conventionally designed photonic crystal structures, but in some cases MBIL-defined structures show a significant increase in bandgap size. Using the results from this analysis, a number of hexagonal photonic crystals are fabricated using a variety of process conditions. It is shown that both rod- and hole-type photonic crystal structures can be fabricated using processes based on both positive and negative photoresist. The "light-field" and "dark-field" interference patterns used to define the hexagonal photonic crystal structures are quickly interchanged by the proper adjustment of each beam's intensity and polarization. The resulting structures, including a large area (~1 cm², 1 x 10⁹ lattice points) photonic crystal are imaged using a scanning electron microscope. Multi-beam-interference lithography provides an enabling initial step for the wafer-scale, cost-effective integration of the impressive PC-based devices into manufacturable DIPCS. While multi-beam-interference lithography represents a promising methodology for the fabrication of PC structures, it lacks in the ability to produce PC-based integrated photonic circuits. Future research will target the lack of a large-scale, cost-effective fabrication methodology for photonic crystal devices. By utilizing diffractive elements, a photo-mask will be able to combine both MBIL and conventional lithography techniques into a single fabrication technology while taking advantage of the inherent positive attributes of both.

L'évolution des technologies numériques a permis l'introduction d'objets connectés dans le quotidien d'une grande partie de la population mondiale. Face à une demande de données sans-fil toujours croissante, des techniques nouvelles doivent être employées pour offrir un débit plus élevé à des appareils moins volumineux et accessibles à un prix raisonnable. Les antennes constituent l'organe central de toutes les télécommunications et elles jouent un rôle majeur dans l'évolution vers des systèmes plus performants. En effet, l'augmentation du débit de données passe par une augmentation du gain et de la bande de fonctionnement, et plus une antenne est directive plus son intégration est complexe. La tendance actuelle est à l'évolution vers les bandes de fréquences millimétriques, ce qui permet une réduction du volume de l'antenne et l'utilisation de bandes de fréquences plus larges, néanmoins la fabrication est un vrai défi technologique. Les travaux de recherches effectués au cours de cette thèse portent sur la conception d'antennes pour une application de lien backhaul : une liaison en bande E (71-86GHz) entre deux antennes fixes utilisée dans un réseau cellulaire ; cependant les concepts et technologies sont facilement transposables à d'autres applications telles que les radars ou les communications satellitaires. Les systèmes étudiés combinent un réseau unidimensionnel de longues fentes rayonnantes (CTS) alimentées en parallèles avec un formateur de faisceau quasi-optique (système pillbox). Les fentes rayonnantes consistent en guides à plans parallèles (GPP) tronqués. Elles sont alimentées en parallèle par un réseau de division de puissance exclusivement basé sur des GPP. Le système pillbox est constitué de deux GPP connectés par un coupleur et un réflecteur parabolique intégré, l'illumination de ce dernier par une source focale génère une onde plane. L'omniprésence de GPP au sein de l'antenne garantit une large bande de fonctionnement, et l'architecture employée permet une meilleure intégration que les antennes quasi-optiques. Ces antennes offrent donc un compromis entre un gain élevé, une large bande de fonctionnement et un profile réduit qui ne peut pas être atteint avec les autres structures présentes dans la littérature. Malheureusement ces antennes comportent également des désavantages. D'un point de vue technologique, leur fabrication est complexe et coûteuse. C'est pourquoi dans ces travaux de thèse un intérêt particulier est porté sur l'utilisation de techniques nouvelles permettant la fabrication de prototypes menant à des résultats expérimentaux. Du point de vue des performances en rayonnement, les antennes CTS/pillbox actuelles ne permettent pas de reconfigurer le rayonnement dans le plan E et le niveau de recouvrement dans le plan H est trop faible pour pouvoir être facilement exploité. Dans cette thèse, des solutions innovantes sont proposées afin de remédier à ce manque de versatilité. Enfin jusqu'à présent, le niveau des lobes secondaires dans le plan E de l'ensemble des antennes CTS alimentées en parallèle est d'environ -13,5dB. Une structure nouvelle est introduite afin de permettre une réduction de ces lobes secondaires à un niveau très faible. / The evolution of numerical technologies allowed the daily use of connected object for a large part of the world’s population. To fulfill the ever-growing demand for wireless communication, new technologies have to be developed in order to obtain higher data-rate with smaller and cheaper devices. The antenna plays a major role in communication systems and their performances are to be improved to obtain more efficient telecommunications. Indeed the rise of data-rate involves an improvement of the antenna gain and bandwidth, but the integration of directive antennas is always challenging. The actual trend is the shift to higher frequency bands, in the millimeter-wave range, this allows a size reduction together with the use of broader bandwidth; however the fabrication becomes a real challenge. The research work realized in this thesis concern the design, fabrication and experimental characterization of antennas for backhaul links: the E-band (71-86GHz) communication between two fixed antennas used in cellular network; nonetheless the solutions developed can easily be applied to other applications such as radar or satellite communications.The studied systems combine a one-dimensional array of long radiating slots (CTS) fed in parallel with a quasi-optical beam forming network (pillbox system). The radiating slots are made of truncated parallel plate waveguides (PPW) and are fed in parallel by a power-divider network realized in PPW technology. The pillbox system consists of two stacked PPWs connected by a multi-slot coupler and an integrated parabolic reflector, the latter converts the cylindrical wave emitted by a focal feed into a planar wave. The omnipresence of PPWs throughout the antenna system insures a broad band of operation, and the architecture shows a lower profile than quasi-optical antennas. This antenna presents an unequaled tradeoff between a high gain, a wide bandwidth and a low-profile. Unfortunately they also have drawbacks. From a technological point of view, their fabrication is complicated and expensive. This is why in this thesis a particular attention is given to the use of new techniques allowing the fabrication of prototypes leading to experimental validation of the results. From the radiation performance point of view, CTS/pillbox antennas do not show any reconfigurability solution in the E-plane and the overlap level obtained in H-plane with already existing antennas is too low to be usable. In this thesis, innovative solutions are investigated to find solution to this lake of versatility. Finally the sidelobe level (SLL) in E-plane of the totality of parallel-fed CTS antennas described in the open-literature is about -13.5dB. A new architecture introduced in this thesis allows a reduction of this SLL down to a negligible level.

No / There are several merits of mobile communication devices having multiple network interfaces as compared to traditional devices with just one interface. Smart phones these days are a true example of a mobile multi-homed communication device with heterogeneous network interfaces. Several solutions are available for unicast applications to provide seamless handover using the multiple interfaces of a multi-homed device in terrestrial networks. However, very little has been done on similar support for IP multicast mobility support for mobile satellite terminals in a ubiquitous multi-beam satellite network. Most of the schemes proposed for handovers in multi-homed devices place a lot of emphasis on maintaining the multi-homed device identity especially when the second interface joins the communication session. This increases complexity in the whole system. The issue of maintaining the multi-homed device identity plus the additional signalling messages involve are neither necessary nor desired in an IP multicast communication handover in a multi-beam satellite scenario. This paper seeks to exploit the group communication features of IP multicast (i.e., the fact that anyone can join or leave a multicast group at any time and from any location) and the multiple interfaces of a mobile Return Channel Satellite Terminal (RCST) to support IP multicast communication during handover when a mobile multi-homed RCST changes its point of attachment to the network from one satellite gateway to another.

With the proliferation of mobile devices and the advance of audio/video coding technologies, there is an increasing demand to provide quality-of-service (QoS) guarantees for multimedia applications. A WLAN (wireless local are network) typically consists of an access point (AP) and a finite set of mobile stations. Since the AP is generally more powerful and less physical constraint than mobile stations, it is of great interest to consider the use of sectorized multi-beam antennas at the AP to boost the network throughput by exploiting the benefit of spatial reuse. IEEE 802.11 is current the de facto standard for WLANs. However, if we directly apply 802.11 to the WLAN with multi-beam AP without any modification, we will encounter many challenging problems. Although existing solutions modify the 802.11 DCF (distributed coordination function) to solve these problems, yet DCF does not provide any QoS support. On the basis of 802.11e HCCA (hybrid channel control access), in this thesis, we propose a novel MAC protocol, named MPCF (multi-beam AP-assisted point coordination function), which is not only backward compatible with DCF, but also supports QoS functionalities, including non-reversal prioritization, time-bounded reservation, admission control, and cross-layer rate adaptation for multimedia streaming. Simulation results show that, in terms of throughput, frame delay dropped rate, and energy throughput, MPCF significantly outperforms existing protocols even in imperfect beam-forming and mobility environments.

Cette thèse étudie les optimisations d’allocation de ressources dans le lien retour de systèmes satellites à faisceaux multipleslimités par les interférences et pouvant être vus comme des systèmes MIMO virtuels. Cette thèse se focalise sur lesinterférences générées par les utilisateurs positionnés dans différents faisceaux et transmettant en même temps et avec lamême fréquence. Le nombre de fréquences (couleurs) présent dans le système satellite modifie la bande passante et de cefait la capacité du système. Quand ce nombre est réduit, par ex. une seule couleur, le niveau d’interférences augmente maisla bande passante dans chaque faisceau est plus grande. Il y a donc un compromis entre nombre de couleurs et niveaud’interférences. L’influence du canal satellite est tout d’abord évaluée en analysant le taux d’erreur obtenu avec diversestechniques de suppression d’interférences. La thèse s’oriente ensuite vers la théorie de l’information et étudie l’impact dunombre de couleurs sur les débits totaux. La détection multi-utilisateurs est prise en compte pour dériver les débitsutilisateurs et en particulier le critère max-min est appliqué, montrant une amélioration du niveau d’équité. Les différentsrésultats sont utilisés pour optimiser l’allocation des ressources mais l’ordonnancement pour des systèmes MIMO à grandeéchelle représente une tâche difficile, le domaine de recherche étant de taille prohibitive. De ce fait cette thèse étudie aussides algorithmes heuristiques à complexité réduite, basés sur la théorie des graphes, visant à trouver des ordonnancementssous-optimaux. Enfin le nombre de faisceaux et d’utilisateurs pris en compte pour l’ordonnancement sont étudiés pourproposer de nouveaux algorithmes satisfaisant des contraintes de qualité de service. / This Ph.D. investigates resource management optimisations in the return-link of interference-limited multi-beam satellitesystems which can be seen as virtual MIMO systems. It focuses on the interference that users located in different beamsgenerate towards each other, when transmitting data at the same time and on the same frequency. The number offrequencies (colours) present in the satellite system rules the overall bandwidth and therefore the system capacity. Whenthe number of colours becomes low, e.g. considering one colour, the level of interference increases dramatically but thebandwidth available in each beam gets higher. Hence there is a tradeoff between number of colours and level ofinterference. The influence of the satellite channel is first studied by analysing the BER obtained through interferencecancellation techniques. The Ph.D. then moves towards information theory and investigates the impact of the colours onthe achievable sum rates. MUD schemes are then used to derive the per-user rates, and the max-min criterion is applied tothe user rates showing an improvement of the level of fairness between users. The different outcomes are used to optimisethe resource management. However, scheduling for large scale MIMO systems, as in the return-links of satellitecommunications, represents a challenging task, since the search space is prohibitive large. For this reason this Ph.D. alsoinvestigates low complexity heuristic algorithms based on graph theory with the aim of finding sub-optimal schedules.Finally, the number of spot beams and the number of users considered for scheduling are studied so as to propose newalgorithms aiming to satisfy quality of service constraints.

La consommation d'énergie est au centre de nos préoccupations. Quelle qu'en soit la raison, économique, écologique, ou politique, ce problème est aujourd'hui au coeur de notresociété.L'objectif de cette thèse est de proposer un moyen de réduire le coût énergétique de composants spécifiques: les klystrons et les klystrodes, appelées aussi IOTs pour Inductive Output Tubes. Ces composants sont des amplificateurs utilisés comme source de haute puissance RF (Radio-Fréquence). Ces tubes existent sous plusieurs formes mais l'état de l'art, en matière de consommation d'énergie, sont les tubes multi-faisceaux. Nous nous fixons donc comme objectif d'améliorer ces klystrons et IOTs multi-faisceaux : les MBKs et MBIOTs. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans le contexte d'amélioration des accélérateurs de particules, par le biais d'une meilleure production des ondes radiofréquence; plus particulièrement en améliorant le rendement des tubes. Améliorer le rendement signifie simplement diminuer l'écart entre l'énergie fournie pour générer les ondes radios et l'énergie effectivement produite etutilisée dans les accélérateurs. Afin d’atteindre cet objectif, la thèse décrit une nouvelle méthode d’analyse des données des simulations (le diagramme de dispersion de vitesse), explique les étapes de conception d’un tube, et approfondit théoriquement la dynamique des électrons et les structures liées au haut rendement. / Nowadays, energy consumption is a capital issue. It is a central problematic in our society for economical, ecological or politicalreasons.The aim of this thesis is to study ways to lower energical costs of specific components : klystrons and klystrodes, also known as IOTs (Inductive Output Tubes). Those components are amplifiers which are used as RF (Radio Frequency) sources in particle accelerators.Various forms of those tubes exist, however themulti-beam tubes are the state of the art regarding energy consumption. Thus, we focus on enhancing the efficiency of multi-beam klystrons and IOTs : the MBKs and MBIOTs.As a result, this thesis is part of the effort to decrease the costs of particle accelerators, by better producing RF waves; and more specifically enhancing the efficiency of tubes.This simply means lowering the gap between the energy needed to produce RF waves and the energy used in accelerators.In order to fulfill this task, the thesis describes a new method to analyse simulated data (the velocity dispersion diagram), explains the steps to develop a tube, and study theoretically beam dynamics and structures in order to reach high efficiency.

No description available.

No / New generation of satellite systems with on-board processing (switching/routing) and support for multiple spot beams will play a key role in the provision of mobile and ubiquitous Internet-based communications. To achieve this `anywhere anytime' communication in a global multi-beam satellite network with many gateways (GWs), the challenges of beam, gateway and satellite handovers faced by the satellite terminals mounted on mobile platforms such as long haul flights, global maritime vessels and continental trains must be adequately dealt with. Network-based localised mobility protocol proxy mobile IPv6 (PMIPv6) where the IP mobility procedures are relocated from the mobile nodes to the network components has been defined by the IETF for terrestrial networks. This paper proposes how the concept of PMIPv6 could be used to support IP mobility in a mesh regenerative multi-beam satellite network. What makes this proposed approach different from that defined by the IETF is the absence of tunnelling throughout the system and the difference in the roles played by the mobility agents.

Yes / Satellite communications provides an effective solution to the ever increasing demand for mobile and ubiquitous communications especially in areas where terrestrial communication infrastructure is not present. IP multicasting is a bandwidth saving technology which could become an indispensable means of group communication over satellites since it can utilise the scarce and expensive satellite resources in an efficient way. In Source-Specific Multicast (SSM) the data is sent through a multicast tree from the source to all the receivers. However, if a source is a mobile node moving from one network to another, then special mechanisms are required to make sure this multicast tree does not break. Until now, while many research efforts have been made to provide IP multicast for the mobile nodes, they are mainly focused on terrestrial networks. Unfortunately, the terrestrial mobile multicast schemes are not directly applicable in a satellite environment. This paper, proposes a new mechanism to support multicast source mobility in SSM based applications for a mesh multi-beam satellite network with receivers both within the satellite network and in the Internet. In the proposed mechanism, the SSM receivers continue to receive multicast traffic from the mobile source despite the fact that the IP address of the source keeps on changing as it changes its point of attachment from one satellite gateway (GW) to another. The proposed scheme is evaluated and the results compared with the mobile IP home subscription (MIP HS)-based approach. The results show that the proposed scheme outperforms the MIP HS-based approach in terms of signalling cost and packet delivery cost.

A new type of photolithography, Pattern-Integrated Interference Lithography (PIIL), was demonstrated. PIIL is the first-ever integration of pattern imaging with interference lithography in a single-exposure step. The result is an optical-intensity distribution composed of a subwavelength periodic lattice with integrated functional circuit elements. To demonstrate the PIIL method, a Pattern-Integrated Interference Exposure System (PIIES) was developed that incorporates a projection imaging capability in a novel three-beam interference configuration. The purpose of this system was to fabricate, in a single-exposure step, representative photonic-crystal structures. Initial experimental results have confirmed the PIIL concept, demonstrating the potential application of PIIL in nano-electronics, photonic crystals, biomedical structures, optical trapping, metamaterials, and in numerous subwavelength structures. In the design of the PIIES configuration, accurate motif geometry models were developed for the 2D plane-group symmetries possible via linearly-polarized three-beam interference, optimized for maximum absolute contrast and primitive-lattice-vector direction equal contrast. Next, a straightforward methodology was presented to facilitate a thorough analysis of effects of parametric constraints on interference-pattern symmetries, motif geometries, and their absolute contrasts. With this information, the design of the basic PIIES configuration was presented along with a model that simulates the resulting optical-intensity distribution at the system sample plane. Appropriate performance metrics were defined in order to quantify the characteristics of the resulting photonic-crystal structure.