On a daily basis humans interact with an increasing variety of personal electronic devices, ranging from laptops, tablets, smartphones, and e-readers to shared devices such as projected displays and interactive, digital tabletops. An emerging area of study focuses on understanding how these devices can be used together to support collaborative work. Where prior research has shown benefits of devices used individually, there is currently a lack of understanding of how devices should be used in conjunction to optimize a group's performance. In particular, the research presented in this dissertation combines qualitative and quantitative analyses of group work in three empirical studies to link the use of shared and personal devices to changes in group performance and process. In the first study, participants performed an optimization task with either a single, shared projected display or with the shared, projected display and personal laptops. Analyses of study data indicated that when personal displays were present, group performance was improved for the optimization task ($p = 0.025$). However, personal devices also reduced a group's ability to coordinate ($p = 0.016$). Additionally, when personal devices were present, individuals primarily used those devices instead of dividing time between their laptops and the shared display. To further investigate the support that shared displays provide groups, and in particular, how shared displays might support group work in multi-display settings, a follow-up study was conducted. The second study investigated how two different types of shared displays supported group work. In particular, shared workspaces, which allowed multiple users to simultaneously interact with shared content, and status displays, which provided awareness of the overall problem state to groups, were investigated. While no significant impact on group performance was observed between the two shared display types, qualitative analysis of groups working in these conditions provided insight into how the displays supported collaborative activities. Shared workspace displays provided a visual reference that aided individuals in grounding communication with their collaborators. On the other hand, status displays enabled the monitoring of a group's overall task progress. Regardless of which display was present, an individual's gaze and body position relative to the shared display supported the synchronization of group activities. Finally, where the previous two studies identified collaborative activities that were supported by the use of shared and personal displays, the experimental task performed by participants did not explore the transfer of task materials between shared and personal devices or alternative personal and shared devices. The third study addressed these limitations through the adoption of a new experimental task that enabled the exploration of how the manipulation of task artefacts supported collaborative activities, and alternative shared and personal devices in the form of interactive digital tabletops and tablet computers. In particular, the third study compared how personal and shared displays supported sensemaking groups working under three conditions: with shared, digital tables, with shared digital tables plus personal tablets, and with only personal tablets. Quantitative analyses revealed that the presence of the shared, digital tabletop significantly improved a group's ability to perform the sensemaking task ($p = 0.019$). Further, qualitative analyses revealed that the table supported key sensemaking activities: the prioritization of task materials, the ability to compare data, and the formation of group hypotheses. This dissertation makes four primary contributions to the field of Computer Supported Cooperative Work. First, it identifies cases where the presence of shared and personal displays provide performance benefits to groups, and through qualitative analyses links these performance benefits to group processes. Second, observed uses are grounded in an established process model, and used to identify collaborative activities that are supported by personal and shared devices. Third, equity of participation on shared displays is found to positively correlate ($p = 0.028$), and equity of participation on personal displays is found to negatively correlate ($p = 0.01$) with group performance for sensemaking tasks. Fourth, the method for studying group process and performance based on teamwork and taskwork provides a useful foundation for future studies of collaborative work.

On a daily basis humans interact with an increasing variety of personal electronic devices, ranging from laptops, tablets, smartphones, and e-readers to shared devices such as projected displays and interactive, digital tabletops. An emerging area of study focuses on understanding how these devices can be used together to support collaborative work. Where prior research has shown benefits of devices used individually, there is currently a lack of understanding of how devices should be used in conjunction to optimize a group's performance. In particular, the research presented in this dissertation combines qualitative and quantitative analyses of group work in three empirical studies to link the use of shared and personal devices to changes in group performance and process. In the first study, participants performed an optimization task with either a single, shared projected display or with the shared, projected display and personal laptops. Analyses of study data indicated that when personal displays were present, group performance was improved for the optimization task ($p = 0.025$). However, personal devices also reduced a group's ability to coordinate ($p = 0.016$). Additionally, when personal devices were present, individuals primarily used those devices instead of dividing time between their laptops and the shared display. To further investigate the support that shared displays provide groups, and in particular, how shared displays might support group work in multi-display settings, a follow-up study was conducted. The second study investigated how two different types of shared displays supported group work. In particular, shared workspaces, which allowed multiple users to simultaneously interact with shared content, and status displays, which provided awareness of the overall problem state to groups, were investigated. While no significant impact on group performance was observed between the two shared display types, qualitative analysis of groups working in these conditions provided insight into how the displays supported collaborative activities. Shared workspace displays provided a visual reference that aided individuals in grounding communication with their collaborators. On the other hand, status displays enabled the monitoring of a group's overall task progress. Regardless of which display was present, an individual's gaze and body position relative to the shared display supported the synchronization of group activities. Finally, where the previous two studies identified collaborative activities that were supported by the use of shared and personal displays, the experimental task performed by participants did not explore the transfer of task materials between shared and personal devices or alternative personal and shared devices. The third study addressed these limitations through the adoption of a new experimental task that enabled the exploration of how the manipulation of task artefacts supported collaborative activities, and alternative shared and personal devices in the form of interactive digital tabletops and tablet computers. In particular, the third study compared how personal and shared displays supported sensemaking groups working under three conditions: with shared, digital tables, with shared digital tables plus personal tablets, and with only personal tablets. Quantitative analyses revealed that the presence of the shared, digital tabletop significantly improved a group's ability to perform the sensemaking task ($p = 0.019$). Further, qualitative analyses revealed that the table supported key sensemaking activities: the prioritization of task materials, the ability to compare data, and the formation of group hypotheses. This dissertation makes four primary contributions to the field of Computer Supported Cooperative Work. First, it identifies cases where the presence of shared and personal displays provide performance benefits to groups, and through qualitative analyses links these performance benefits to group processes. Second, observed uses are grounded in an established process model, and used to identify collaborative activities that are supported by personal and shared devices. Third, equity of participation on shared displays is found to positively correlate ($p = 0.028$), and equity of participation on personal displays is found to negatively correlate ($p = 0.01$) with group performance for sensemaking tasks. Fourth, the method for studying group process and performance based on teamwork and taskwork provides a useful foundation for future studies of collaborative work.

Many types of multi-display environments (MDEs) are emerging that allow users to better interact with computers. In these environments, being able to move visual objects (such as window icons or the cursor) from one display to another is a fundamental activity. This dissertation focuses on understanding how human performance of cross-display actions is affected by the design of cross-display object movement interaction techniques. Three main aspects of cross-display actions are studied: how displays are referred to by the system and the users, how spatial actions are planned, and how actions are executed. Each of these three aspects is analyzed through laboratory experiments that provide empirical evidence on how different characteristics of interaction techniques affect performance. The results further our understanding of cross-display interaction and can be used by designers of new MDEs to create more efficient multi-display interfaces.

Tesis por compendio / Los juegos serios colaborativos tienen un impacto positivo en el comportamiento y el aprendizaje, pero siguen desarrollándose para plataformas tecnológicas tradicionales como videoconsolas y ordenadores de sobremesa o portátiles, los cuales han sido identificados como sub-óptimos para niños en diversos estudios. En su lugar, el uso de dispositivos móviles como tabletas y teléfonos inteligentes presenta diversas ventajas: son económicamente asequibles, están ampliamente distribuidos, y pueden ser transportados, lo cual permite la actividad física y poder iniciar un juego sin necesitar que los usuarios se trasladen a una localización fija, especialmente dedicada para tal fin. Además, combinar varios de estos dispositivos y coordinar la interacción entre ellos en lo que se denomina Entorno Multi-Pantalla (EMP) proporciona beneficios adicionales para la colaboración tales como una mayor escalabilidad, conciencia del espacio de trabajo, paralelismo y fluidez de las interacciones. La interacción en estos entornos multi-tableta es por tanto un aspecto crítico. Los dispositivos móviles están diseñados para ser interactuados mediante el toque de los dedos principalmente, lo cual es muy sencillo y directo, pero está normalmente limitado a la pequeña dimensión de las pantallas, lo que puede conllevar la oclusión de la pantalla y la infrautilización del espacio periférico. Por esta razón, esta tesis se centra en la exploración de otro mecanismo de interacción que puede complementar al táctil: interacciones tangibles alrededor del dispositivo. Las interacciones tangibles están basadas en la manipulación de objetos físicos, lo que presenta un valor adicional en la educación de los niños puesto que resuena con los manipulativos educativos tradicionales y permite la exploración del mundo físico. Por otra parte, la explotación del espacio que envuelve a las pantallas tiene diversos beneficios adicionales para actividades educativas colaborativas: reducida oclusión de la pantalla (lo cual puede incrementar la conciencia del espacio de trabajo), el uso de objetos tangibles como contenedores de información digital que puede ser transportada de forma continua entre dispositivos, y la identificación de un determinado estudiante a través de la codificación de su ID en un operador tangible (lo cual facilita el seguimiento de sus acciones y progreso durante el juego). Esta tesis describe dos enfoques distintos para construir juegos educativos colaborativos en EMPs utilizando interacciones tangibles alrededor de los dispositivos. Una, denominada MarkAirs, es una solución óptica aérea que no necesita ningún hardware adicional aparte de las tabletas excepto diversas tarjetas de cartón impresas. La otra, Tangibot, introduce un robot tangiblemente controlado y otro atrezo físico en el entorno, y se basa en tecnología RFID. Ambas interacciones son respectivamente evaluadas, y se observa que MarkAirs es usable y poco exigente tanto para adultos como para niños, y que se pueden realizar con éxito gestos de grano fino encima de las tabletas con ella. Además, al aplicarse en juegos colaborativos, puede ayudar a reducir la oclusión de las pantallas y la interferencia entre las distintas acciones de los usuarios, lo cual es un problema que puede surgir en este tipo de escenarios cuando solamente se dispone de interacciones táctiles. Se evalúa un juego educativo colaborativo con MarkAirs con niños de educación primaria, y se concluye que este mecanismo es capaz de crear experiencias de aprendizaje colaborativo y de presentar un valor añadido en términos de experiencia de usuario, aunque no en eficiencia. Con respecto a Tangibot, se muestra que controlar colaborativamente un robot móvil mediante unas palas tangibles con cierta precisión es factible para niños a partir de los tres años de edad, e incluso para personas mayores con un deterioro cognitivo leve. Además, proporciona una experiencia divertida / Collaborative serious games have a positive impact on behavior and learning, but the majority are still being developed for traditional technological platforms, e.g., video consoles and desktop/laptop computers, which have been deemed suboptimal for children by several studies. Instead, the use of handheld devices such as tablets and smartphones presents several advantages: they are affordable, very widespread, and mobile---which enables physical activity and being able to engage in a game without requiring users to gather around a fixed, dedicated, location. Plus, combining several of these devices and coordinating interactions across them in what is called a Multi-Display Environment (MDE) brings on additional benefits to collaboration like higher scalability, awareness, parallelism, and fluidity of the interaction. How to interact with these multi-tablet environments is therefore a critical issue. Mobile devices are designed to be interacted mainly via touch, which is very straightforward but usually limited to the small area of the displays, which can lead to the occlusion of the screen and the underuse of the peripheral space. For this reason, this thesis focuses on the exploration of another interaction mechanism that can complement touch: tangible around-device interactions. Tangible interactions are based on the manipulation of physical objects, which have an added value in childhood education as they resonate with traditional learning manipulatives and enable the exploration of the physical world. On the other hand, the exploitation of the space surrounding the displays has several potential benefits for collaborative-learning activities: reduced on-screen occlusion (which may increase workspace awareness), the use of tangible objects as containers of digital information that can be seamlessly moved across devices, and the identification of a given student through the encoding of their ID in a tangible manipulator (which facilitates the tracking of their actions and progress throughout the game). This thesis describes two different approaches to build collaborative-learning games for MDEs using tangible around-device interactions. One, called MarkAirs, is a mid-air optical solution relying on no additional hardware besides the tablets except for several cardboard printed cards. The other, Tangibot, introduces a tangible-mediated robot and other physical props in the environment and is based on RFID technology. Both interactions are respectively evaluated, and it is observed that MarkAirs is usable and undemanding both for adults and for children, and that fine-grained gestures above the tablets can be successfully conducted with it. Also, when applied to collaborative games, it can help reduce screen occlusion and interference among the different users' actions, which is a problem that may arise in such settings when only touch interactions are available. A collaborative learning game with MarkAirs is evaluated with primary school children, revealing this mechanism as capable of creating collaborative learning experiences and presenting an added value in user experience, although not in performance. With respect to Tangibot, we show how collaboratively controlling a mobile robot with tangible paddles and achieving certain precision with it is feasible for children from 3 years of age, and even for elderly people with mild cognitive impairment. Furthermore, it provides a fun experience for children and maintains them in a constant state of flow. / Els jocs seriosos col·laboratius tenen un impacte positiu en el comportament i l'aprenentatge, però continuen sent desenvolupats per a plataformes tecnològiques tradicionals com videoconsoles i ordinadors de sobretaula o portàtils, els quals han sigut identificats com sub-òptims per a xiquets en diversos estudis. D'altra banda, l'ús de dispositius mòbils com ara tabletes i telèfons intel·ligents presenta diversos avantatges: són econòmicament assequibles, estan àmpliament distribuïts i poden ser transportats, la qual cosa permet l'activitat física i poder iniciar un joc sense necessitat de què els usuaris es traslladen a una localització fixa i especialment dedicada per a eixa finalitat. A més, combinar diversos d'estos dispositius i coordinar la interacció entre ells en el que es denomina Entorn Multi-Pantalla (EMP) proporciona beneficis addicionals per a la col·laboració tals com una major escalabilitat, consciència de l'espai de treball, paral·lelisme i fluïdesa de les interaccions. La interacció amb estos entorns multi-tableta és per tant crítica. Els dispositius mòbils estan dissenyats per a ser interactuats mitjançant tocs de dit principalment, mecanisme molt senzill i directe, però està normalment limitat a la reduïda dimensió de les pantalles, cosa que pot ocasionar l'oclusió de la pantalla i la infrautilització de l'espai perifèric. Per aquesta raó, la present tesi se centra en l'exploració d'un altre mecanisme d'interacció que pot complementar al tàctil: interaccions tangible al voltant dels dispositius. Les interaccions tangibles estan basades en la manipulació d'objectes físics, cosa que presenta un valor addicional en l'educació dels xiquets ja que ressona amb els manipulatius tradicionals i permet l'exploració del món físic. D'altra banda, l'explotació de l'espai que envolta a les pantalles té diversos beneficis addicionals per a activitats educatives col·laboratives: reduïda oclusió de la pantalla (la qual cosa pot incrementar la consciència de l'espai de treball), l'ús d'objectes tangibles com a contenidors d'informació digital que pot ser transportada de forma continua entre dispositius, i la identificació d'un estudiant determinat a través de la codificació de la seua identitat en un operador tangible (cosa que facilita el seguiment de les seues accions i progrés durant el joc). Aquesta tesi descriu dos enfocaments distints per a construir jocs educatius col·laboratius en EMPs utilitzant interaccions tangibles al voltant dels dispositius. Una, denominada MarkAirs, és una solució òptica aèria que no precisa de cap maquinari addicional a banda de les tabletes, exceptuant diverses targetes de cartró impreses. L'altra, Tangibot, introdueix un robot controlat tangiblement i attrezzo físic addicional en l'entorn, i es basa en tecnologia RFID. Ambdues interaccions són avaluades respectivament, i s'observa que MarkAirs és usable i poc exigent tant per a adults com per a xiquets, i que es poden realitzar gestos de granularitat fina dalt de les tabletes amb ella. A més a més, en aplicar-se a jocs col·laboratius, pot ajudar a reduir l'oclusió de les pantalles i la interferència entre les distintes accions dels usuaris, problema que pot aparèixer en este tipus d'escenaris quan solament es disposa d'interaccions tàctils. S'avalua un joc educatiu col·laboratiu amb MarkAirs amb xiquets d'educació primària, i es conclou que aquest mecanisme és capaç de crear experiències d'aprenentatge col·laboratiu i de presentar un valor afegit en termes d'experiència d'usuari, tot i que no en eficiència. Respecte a Tangibot, es mostra que controlar conjuntament un robot mòbil mitjançant unes pales tangibles amb certa precisió és factible per a xiquets a partir de tres anys i inclús per a persones majors amb un lleu deteriorament cognitiu. A més, proporciona una experiència divertida per als xiquets i els manté en un estat constant de flow. / García Sanjuan, F. (2018). CREAME: CReation of Educative Affordable Multi-surface Environments [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/101942 / Compendio