I investigated how two types of rhythmic complexity, syncopation and tempo fluctuation, affect the neural and behavioral responses of listeners. The aim of Experiment 1 was to explore the role of attention in pulse and meter perception using complex rhythms. A selective attention paradigm was used in which participants attended either to a complex auditory rhythm or a visually presented list of words. Performance on a reproduction task was used to gauge whether participants were attending to the appropriate stimulus. Selective attention to rhythms led to increased BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent) responses in basal ganglia, and basal ganglia activity was observed only after the rhythms had cycled enough times for a stable pulse percept to develop. These observations show that attention is needed to recruit motor activations associated with the perception of pulse in complex rhythms. Moreover, attention to the auditory stimulus enhanced activity in an attentional sensory network including primary auditory, insula, anterior cingulate, and prefrontal cortex, and suppressed activity in sensory areas associated with attending to the visual stimulus. In Experiment 2, the effect of tempo fluctuation in expressive music on emotional responding in musically experienced and inexperienced listeners was investigated. Participants listened to a skilled music performance, including natural fluctuations in timing and sound intensity that musicians use to evoke emotional responses, and a mechanical performance of the same piece, that served as a control. Participants reported emotional responses on a 2-dimensional rating scale (arousal and valence), before and after fMRI scanning. During fMRI scanning, participants listened without reporting emotional responses. Tempo fluctuations predicted emotional arousal ratings for all listeners. / Expressive performance was associated with BOLD increases in limbic areas for all listeners and in limbic and reward related areas forthose with musical experience. Activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate, which may reflect temporal expectancy, was also dependent on the musical experience of the listener. Changes in tempo correlated with activity in a mirror neuron network in all listeners, and mirror neuron activity was associated with emotional arousal in experienced listeners. These results suggest that emotional responding to music occurs through an empathic motor resonance. / by Heather L. Chapin. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2009. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2009. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

This dissertation investigated the nature of pulse in the tempo fluctuation of music performance and how people entrain with these performed musical rhythms. In Experiment 1, one skilled pianist performed four compositions with natural tempo fluctuation. The changes in tempo showed long-range correlation and fractal (1/f) scaling for all four performances. To determine whether the finding of 1/f structure would generalize to other pianists, musical styles, and performance practices, fractal analyses were conducted on a large database of piano performances in Experiment 3. Analyses revealed signicant long-range serial correlations in 96% of the performances. Analysis showed that the degree of fractal structure depended on piece, suggesting that there is something in the composition's musical structure which causes pianists' tempo fluctuations to have a similar degree of fractal structure. Thus, musical tempo fluctuations exhibit long-range correlations and fractal scaling. To examine how people entrain to these temporal fluctuations, a series of behavioral experiments were conducted where subjects were asked to tap the pulse (beat) to temporally fluctuating stimuli. The stimuli for Experiment 2 were musical performances from Experiment 1, with mechanical versions serving as controls. Subjects entrained to all stimuli at two metrical levels, and predicted the tempo fluctuations observed in Experiment 1. Fractal analyses showed that the fractal structure of the stimuli was reected in the inter-tap intervals, suggesting a possible relationship between fractal tempo scaling, pulse perception, and entrainment. Experiments 4-7 investigated the extent to which people use long-range correlation and fractal scaling to predict tempo fluctuations in fluctuating rhythmic sequences. / Both natural and synthetic long-range correlations enabled prediction, as well as shuffled versions which contained no long-term fluctuations. Fractal structure of the stimuli was again in the inter-tap intervals, with persistence for the fractal stimuli, and antipersistence for the shuffled stimuli. 1/f temporal structure is suficient though not necessary for prediction of fluctuations in a stimulus with large temporal fluctuations. / by Summer K. Rankin. / Vita. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

O presente trabalho procura descrever e avaliar possibilidades de reconhecimento de ambiguidades rítmicas a partir da perspectiva do ouvinte musical. Adota como principais referenciais: a análise de cenário auditivo, de Bregman (1990); a percepção por categorias, de Clarke (1987); o conceito de relógio interno, de Povel e Essens (1985) e a indução do tempo musical, de Povel e Okkerman (1981); o modelo de regras de preferência, de Lerdahl e Jackendoff (1983), depois desenvolvido por Temperley (2001); os critérios de padrões inerentes e o padrão da linha do tempo, de Kubik (1962); conceitos da psicologia da expectativa, de Huron (2007) e a aplicação de princípios gestálticos a processos cognitivos de percepção do ritmo. Com base neste referencial teórico, propõe parâmetros organizados como fatores endógenos e exógenos para a verificação de aspectos relacionados à maneira como ouvintes médios percebem as articulações rítmicas propostas nos exemplos musicais propostos. Por considerar que os compassos iniciais de uma obra constituem uma fase onde ocorre o processo de indução da percepção métrica, os exemplos musicais são constituídos de análises de trechos iniciais de obras musicais potencialmente ambíguos nomeadamente, Sinfonia n. 5, op. 67 (I), Sonata para piano, op. 14, n. 2 (I), Sonata para piano, op. 109 (I), de Beethoven; Quarteto de cordas, op. 51 n. 1 (I), de Brahms; Sinfonia n. 5, op. 64 (III), de Tchaikovsky. Traz, ainda, um exemplo de ambiguidade entre Ijexá e Drum n´Bass. Na conclusão, defende a ideia de que alguns modelos cognitivos atuais são capazes de justificar percepções auditivas ambíguas. / This study describes and evaluates the recognition of possibilities of rhythmic ambiguity from the perspective of the musical listener. Adopts as main references: the Auditory Scene Analysis, by Bregman (1990); the Categorical Rhythm Perception, by Clarke (1987); internal clock concept, by Povel and Essens (1985), and induction of musical time, by Povel and Okkerman (1981); the preference rule model, by Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983), later developed by Temperley (2001); Inherent patterns and Timeline pattern criteria, by Kubik (1962); Psychology of Expectation concepts, by Huron (2007), and application of Gestalt principles to cognitive processes of rhythm perception. Based on this theoretical framework it proposes parameters organized as endogenous and exogenous factors to verify aspects related to the perception of proposed articulations by averages listeners, in the proposed rhythmic musical examples. Considering that the initial measures of a work constitute a stage where the induction process of meter perception occurs, the musical examples are made up of initial excerpts analysis from musical works potentially ambiguous namely, Symphony no. 5, op. 67 (I), Piano Sonata, op. 14, no. 2 (I), Piano Sonata, op. 109 (I), by Beethoven; String Quartet, op. 51 no. 1 (I), by Brahms; Symphony no. 5, op. 64 (III), Tchaikovsky. This paper also provides an example of ambiguity between Ijexá pattern and Drum n\'bass pattern. In the conclusion, defends the idea that some current cognitive models are able to justify ambiguous auditory perceptions.

Este trabalho toma como objeto de estudo a percepção musical. Apresenta uma análise crítica de ementas, programas e livros usados na disciplina Percepção Musical, em cursos brasileiros de graduação em Música, através da qual busca desvelar as concepções sobre a percepção musical e seu desenvolvimento que servem de fundamento a esse material. O referencial teórico adotado, a perspectiva histórico-cultural que postula a natureza social e histórica do desenvolvimento humano e a percepção humana como um processo estrutural e semiótico , permitiu identificar, através dessa análise, um entendimento da percepção musical como um processo atomístico baseado no reconhecimento e reprodução dos elementos formadores da linguagem musical. Assumindo a música (efetivamente) como uma forma de linguagem e uma concepção enunciativo-discursiva da linguagem, procura, então, trabalhar com a idéia de que os processos perceptivos em música podem ser considerados como sinônimo de compreensão da obra musical e tenta desenvolver concretamente algumas idéias que possam orientar uma proposta metodológica alternativa para a Percepção Musical. / The study object of this work is musical perception. It presents a critical analysis of summaries, programs and books used in the Musical Perception subject, in Brazilian courses of graduation in Music, through which it searches to reveal the conceptions about musical perception and its development that serve as footing for this material. The adopted theoretical referential, the historical-cultural perspective - that claims the social and historical nature of the human development and the human perception as a structural and semiotic process -, allowed to identify, through the analysis, an agreement of musical perception as an atomistic process based in the recognition and reproduction of the formative elements of musical language. Assuming music (effectively) as a form of language and an enunciativediscursive conception of language, it searches, then, to work with the idea that the perceptive processes in music can be considered as synonymous of understanding of musical workmanship and tries to concretely develop some ideas that can guide an alternative methodological proposal for Musical Perception.

The purpose of this case study was to explore and understand the function of music in an infant community. By observing the musical behaviors of seven children under the age of two in both childcare and home settings, I sought to gain new insights that can inform parents, caregivers, and educators about the engagement with and possible functions of music for infants. The theories of Communicative Musicality and psychobiological needs informed this study and provided the lenses through which I observed infant musicality. Data collection comprised semi-structured interviews with parents at home, interviews with teachers, weekly infant room observation fieldnotes, weekly infant music class video observations, parent and teacher diary entries, and artifacts such as memos, videos, and photos from the childcare and home settings. Data analysis involved identifying infant musical behaviors and their possible functions with respect to the child’s musical experience, framed as episodes. Through the use of portraiture, the individual music making of each infant was described within the contexts of the home, school, field observation, and music class settings, and relationships that developed through musical interactions were highlighted within the infant community. Results indicate that vocal and movement behaviors were the most prominent behaviors identified overall, and communication had the highest frequency of all functions. In contrast to the school-based teacher and researcher field observation settings where vocal behaviors were high, movement behaviors were identified as most prevalent during music class. The child-centered emergent curriculum provided space for the infants to demonstrate choice and leadership by setting up musical toys, pointing to an instrument, moving to indicate direction in a song, bringing song books to adults, singing fragments of songs, participating on the periphery, and gesturing for more. Infants listened and engaged in music class by moving and playing instruments and displayed their attentiveness by later recalling and initiating these activities in other settings. Increased infant room vocalizations outside music time included those resulting from delayed imitation and extensions from music class. Music is a social endeavor wherein infants build community, motivating leadership, friendship, and kinship.

Szeto, Wai Man. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 81-86). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.ii / Acknowledgements --- p.vi / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Motivations and Aims --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Thesis Organization --- p.6 / Chapter 2 --- Preliminaries --- p.7 / Chapter 2.1 --- Fundamentals of Music and Terminology --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2 --- Findings in Auditory Psychology --- p.8 / Chapter 3 --- Literature Review --- p.12 / Chapter 3.1 --- Pattern Matching Techniques for Music Information Retrieval --- p.12 / Chapter 3.2 --- Stream Segregation --- p.14 / Chapter 3.3 --- Post-tonal Music Analysis --- p.15 / Chapter 4 --- Proposed Method for Stream Segregation --- p.17 / Chapter 4.1 --- Music Representation --- p.17 / Chapter 4.2 --- Proposed Method --- p.19 / Chapter 4.3 --- Application of Stream Segregation to Polyphonic Databases --- p.27 / Chapter 4.4 --- Experimental Results --- p.30 / Chapter 4.5 --- Summary --- p.36 / Chapter 5 --- Proposed Approaches for Post-tonal Music Analysis --- p.38 / Chapter 5.1 --- Pitch-Class Set Theory --- p.39 / Chapter 5.2 --- Sequence-Based Approach --- p.43 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Music Representation --- p.43 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Matching Conditions --- p.44 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Algorithm --- p.46 / Chapter 5.3 --- Graph-Based Approach --- p.47 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- Graph Theory and Its Notations --- p.48 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- Music Representation --- p.50 / Chapter 5.3.3 --- Matching Conditions --- p.53 / Chapter 5.3.4 --- Algorithm --- p.57 / Chapter 5.4 --- Experiments --- p.67 / Chapter 5.4.1 --- Experiment 1 --- p.67 / Chapter 5.4.2 --- Experiment 2 --- p.68 / Chapter 5.4.3 --- Experiment 3 --- p.70 / Chapter 5.4.4 --- Experiment 4 --- p.75 / Chapter 6 --- Conclusion --- p.79 / Bibliography --- p.81 / A Publications --- p.87

O presente trabalho procura descrever e avaliar possibilidades de reconhecimento de ambiguidades rítmicas a partir da perspectiva do ouvinte musical. Adota como principais referenciais: a análise de cenário auditivo, de Bregman (1990); a percepção por categorias, de Clarke (1987); o conceito de relógio interno, de Povel e Essens (1985) e a indução do tempo musical, de Povel e Okkerman (1981); o modelo de regras de preferência, de Lerdahl e Jackendoff (1983), depois desenvolvido por Temperley (2001); os critérios de padrões inerentes e o padrão da linha do tempo, de Kubik (1962); conceitos da psicologia da expectativa, de Huron (2007) e a aplicação de princípios gestálticos a processos cognitivos de percepção do ritmo. Com base neste referencial teórico, propõe parâmetros organizados como fatores endógenos e exógenos para a verificação de aspectos relacionados à maneira como ouvintes médios percebem as articulações rítmicas propostas nos exemplos musicais propostos. Por considerar que os compassos iniciais de uma obra constituem uma fase onde ocorre o processo de indução da percepção métrica, os exemplos musicais são constituídos de análises de trechos iniciais de obras musicais potencialmente ambíguos nomeadamente, Sinfonia n. 5, op. 67 (I), Sonata para piano, op. 14, n. 2 (I), Sonata para piano, op. 109 (I), de Beethoven; Quarteto de cordas, op. 51 n. 1 (I), de Brahms; Sinfonia n. 5, op. 64 (III), de Tchaikovsky. Traz, ainda, um exemplo de ambiguidade entre Ijexá e Drum n´Bass. Na conclusão, defende a ideia de que alguns modelos cognitivos atuais são capazes de justificar percepções auditivas ambíguas. / This study describes and evaluates the recognition of possibilities of rhythmic ambiguity from the perspective of the musical listener. Adopts as main references: the Auditory Scene Analysis, by Bregman (1990); the Categorical Rhythm Perception, by Clarke (1987); internal clock concept, by Povel and Essens (1985), and induction of musical time, by Povel and Okkerman (1981); the preference rule model, by Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983), later developed by Temperley (2001); Inherent patterns and Timeline pattern criteria, by Kubik (1962); Psychology of Expectation concepts, by Huron (2007), and application of Gestalt principles to cognitive processes of rhythm perception. Based on this theoretical framework it proposes parameters organized as endogenous and exogenous factors to verify aspects related to the perception of proposed articulations by averages listeners, in the proposed rhythmic musical examples. Considering that the initial measures of a work constitute a stage where the induction process of meter perception occurs, the musical examples are made up of initial excerpts analysis from musical works potentially ambiguous namely, Symphony no. 5, op. 67 (I), Piano Sonata, op. 14, no. 2 (I), Piano Sonata, op. 109 (I), by Beethoven; String Quartet, op. 51 no. 1 (I), by Brahms; Symphony no. 5, op. 64 (III), Tchaikovsky. This paper also provides an example of ambiguity between Ijexá pattern and Drum n\'bass pattern. In the conclusion, defends the idea that some current cognitive models are able to justify ambiguous auditory perceptions.

A series of experiments investigate the roles of relational coding and expectancy in memory for melodies. The focus on memory for melodies was motivated by an argument that research on the evolutionary psychology of music cognition would be improved by further research in this area. Melody length and the use of transposition were identified in a literature review as experimental variables with the potential to shed light on the cognitive mechanisms in memory for melodies; similarly, pitch interval magnitude (PIM), melodic contour, metre, and pulse were identified as musical attributes that appear to be processed by memory for melodies. It was concluded that neither previous models of verbal short term memory (vSTM) nor previous models of memory for melodies are unable to satisfactorily explain current findings on memory for melodies. The model of relational memory for melodies that is developed here aims to explain findings from the memory for melodies literature. This model emphasises the relationship between: a) perceptual processes – specifically, a relational coding mechanism which encodes pitch and temporal information in a relational form; b) a short term store; and c) the redintegration of memory traces using schematic and veridical expectancies. The relational coding mechanism, which focuses on pitch and temporal accents (c.f., Jones, 1993), is assumed to be responsible for the salience of contour direction and note length, while the expectancy processes are assumed to be more responsible for the salience of increases in PIM or deviations from the temporal grid. Using a melody discrimination task, with key transposition within-pairs, in which melody length was manipulated, Experiments 1a, 1b, and 2 investigated the assumption that contour would be more reliant on the relational coding mechanism and PIM would be more reliant on expectancy processes. Experiment 1a confirmed this hypothesis using 8 and 16 note folk melodies. Experiment 1b used the same stimuli as Experiment 1a, except that the within-pair order was reversed in order to reduce the influence of expectancy processes. As expected, while contour was still salient under these conditions, PIM was not. Experiment 2 was similar to Experiment 1b, except that it avoided using the original melodies in same trials in order to specifically reduce the influence of veridical expectancy processes. This led to a floor effect. Overall, the results support the explanation of pitch processing in memory for melodies in the model. Experiments 3 and 4 investigated the assumption in the model that temporal processing in memory for melodies was reliant on the relational coding mechanism. Experiment 3 found that, with key transposition within-pairs, there was little difference between pulse alterations (which deviate more from the temporal grid) and metre alterations (which lengthen the note more) in short melodies, but that pulse alterations were more salient than metre alterations in long melodies. Experiment 4 showed that, with tempo transposition within-pairs, metre alterations were more salient than pulse alterations in short melodies, but that there was no difference in salience in long melodies. That metre alterations are more salient than pulse alterations in Experiment 4 strongly suggests that there is relational coding of temporal information, and that this relational coding uses note length to determine the presence of accents, as the model predicts. Experiments 5a and 5b, using a Garner interference task, transposition within-pairs, and manipulations of melody length, investigated the hypothesis derived from the model that pitch and temporal information would be integrated in the relational coding mechanism. Experiment 5b demonstrated an effect of Garner interference from pitch alterations on the discrimination of temporal alterations; Experiment 5a found a weaker effect of Garner interference from pitch alterations on the discrimination of temporal alterations. The presence of Garner interference in these tasks when there was transposition within melody pairs suggests that pitch and temporal information are integrated in the relational coding mechanism, as predicted in the model. Seven experiments therefore provide support for the assumption that a relational coding mechanism and LTM expectancies play a role in the discrimination of melodies. This has implications for other areas of research in music cognition. Firstly, theories of the evolution of music must be able to explain why features of these processing mechanisms could have evolved. Secondly, research into acquired amusia should have a greater focus on differences between perceptual, cognitive, and LTM processing. Thirdly, research into similarities between music processing and language processing would be improved by further research using PIM as a variable. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

With the intent of learning more about the process of assessing music ability, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of music learning on music aptitude scores. The problem of this study is to determine if there is a difference between pretest-posttest tonal aptitude scores, as measured by AMMA, for students who possess high and low levels of tonal audiation ability and who either received specialized audiation training on computer or no specialized audiation training. Forty-eight Grade 11 and 12 music students were administered AMMA as a pretest. An intact music class of 24 students received 13 weeks of computer instruction. The experimental treatment consisted of a computer assisted software program, Tonal Syntax Tutorial, which provided audiation practice for high school and college students. A randomly selected group of 24 students received their normal classroom music instruction. Pretest AMMA scores were used as the criterion measure. At the end of 13 weeks, all students were re-administered AMMA as a posttest. AMMA pretest and posttest Tonal scores were organized into a multidimensional design. A covariate analysis of the AMMA scores was calculated and a MANOVA was employed to determine differences between the pretest and posttest AMMA Tonal scores. Main effects, interaction effects, and simple main effects were tested at the .05 level of significance. The researcher found no significant difference between the treatment and control group tonal aptitude scores, however, there was a significant difference between levels of aptitude. It was interpreted that the difference between the students who possessed high tonal aptitude and students who possess low tonal aptitude was not a real difference because the difference in student tonal aptitude levels actually existed before the study began. The researcher believes that AMMA can be a useful instrument in the assessment of music abilities of high school students. Also, based on our present knowledge of computer assisted music instruction, it seems that that type of instruction alone is not sufficient to affect a change in tonal audiation ability of high school students.

It has recently become more common to combine methodologies from the fields of ethnomusicology and psychoacoustics to address fundamental questions concerning music perception. Ethnomusicology emphasizes cultural context when examining the different ways musical sounds are organized. Psychoacoustics explores the relationships between perceptual processes and physical properties of sound. The methodologies of both disciplines are crucial in developing a cross-cultural cognitive theory of music. A perception experiment was performed on two groups of Western musicians: one with training in Javanese gamelan music (the Gamelan group), and one without training in Javanese gamelan (the Western group). This study examined whether changes in timbre perception occurred in adults who were trained in another culture's music compared to naive listeners. The two groups' perceptions were also compared between an isolated tone and a melodic context to determine where the effects of training were most salient. A mathematical technique known as Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) showed that all subjects based their ratings on two factors during both contexts. In the isolated tone context, the two subject groups did not differ in their timbre perception. In the melodic context, the subject groups diverged in a statistically significant manner. Multiple regression analysis showed that in the isolated tone context, attack centroid (a measure of the spectral energy distribution during the initial 50 milliseconds of the tone) was emphasized almost equally by both groups, along with an unknown psychological factor. In the melodic context, the Gamelan group focused their attention almost completely on the attack centroid while the Western group focused their attention roughly the same between the attack centroid and the middle portion of the amplitude envelope. These results indicate that timbre perception in the music of another culture is modified when a listener has received training in that music, even as an adult. A musical context is needed for these modifications to become apparent, however, otherwise training has no effect on processing timbre. It would appear that attention is directed to acoustical properties that provide meaning to a musical context by those listeners who are familiar with that context. Conversely, listeners who are naive of another culture's musical contexts do not focus their attention on those specific acoustical properties.