Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Worldwide, more large antenna arrays are being deployed in areas of science previously dominated by other antenna geometries. Applications for large arrays include Radar, Satellite Communications and Radio Astronomy. Even though the use of large arrays solve some of the difficulties posed by more traditional antennas, new challenges are also faced. One of these challenges is the problem of noise coupling, and how the overall system performance is affected by it. The Focal Plane Array (FPA), which is a new example of a large antenna array, is currently being researched at a number of institutions worldwide for use in Radio Astronomy. As a result, FPA’s were used as an example element to demonstrate the practical importance of this research. In this study, the effect of mutual coupling on the noise performance of FPA’s was illustrated. This was done by calculating the mutual coupling between the elements of the array, and then calculating the noise power received by each element as a result of the mutual coupling. Next, the Active Noise Figure and Active Noise Temperature were calculated. These parameters were introduced to visualise the effect of mutual coupling on the overall noise performance of the array. Since FPA’s are by definition large, conventional brute-force analysis techniques are very resource intensive. Solving the coupling terms using these methods therefore requires the use of computer clusters even during the design phase of the antenna, which is very expensive. A method was therefore developed to calculate the coupling terms of a large array using Periodic Boundary Conditions. The method uses infinite array analysis, which resulted in an improvement in memory usage in orders of magnitude. This improvement comfortably places the memory requirements for the analysis of large arrays within the range of current personal computers. The results also displayed a reasonable amount of accuracy for use during the design phase of an array. The additional noise power on each element as a result of mutual coupling were also calculated. This was achieved by developing an equivalent circuit diagram that represents the system in terms of the noise and transmission parameters of the LNA of each receiver channel, and the coupling terms of the antenna array. Lastly, the active noise temperature and active noise figure are calculated. The theory was implemented by means of a script with a graphical user interface, to provide easy-to-use access to the theory. A quick reference table of estimated noise coupling penalty versus first term coupling and LNA noise temperature was also compiled. The results of an example calculation showed a significant amount of noise coupling in an 8×8 Vivaldi array. The noise coupling resulted in an increase in system noise temperature, Tsys, in the order of 9% of the LNA noise temperature, TLNA. According to the SKA Tsys budget, this results in an approximate Tsys increase of 1.3 Kelvin. In the context of Radio Astronomy, this additional source of noise cannot be ignored, as it can greatly affect the usebility of the telescope for certain areas of research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Groot antennaskikkings word deesdae al hoe meer ingespan in plek van ander tradisionele antennamodelle. Toepassings vir groot antennaskikkings sluit Radar, Satellietkommunikasie en Radioastronomie in. Alhoewel die gebruik van groot antennaskikkings baie van die probleme wat deur ander tradisionele antennamodelle veroorsaak word oplos, word nuwe uitdagings terselfdertyd geskep. Een van hierdie nuwe uitdagins is ruiskoppelling en hoe dit die ruisgedrag van die stelsel as ’n geheel affekteer. ’n Beeldvlakskikking (FPA), is ’n opwindende nuwe voorbeeld van ’n groot antennaskikking en die moontlikheid vir die gebruik daarvan in radioastronomie word tans wêreldwyd nagevors. Om hierdie rede is die FPA gekies as voorbeeldelement om die bruikbaarheid van hierdie navorsing in die praktyk te beklemtoon. In hierdie studie word die effek van wedersydse koppelling op die ruisgedrag van FPA’s geïllustreer. Dit word gedoen deur eers die wedersydse koppelling tussen die elemente van die antennaskikking te bereken en dan die ruisdrywing wat deur elke element ontvang word as gevolg van wedersydse koppelling. Daarna word die Aktiewe Ruistal en die Aktiewe Ruistemperatuur bereken. Hierdie nuwe parameters word bekendgestel om die gevolge van wedersydse koppelling op die ruisgedrag van die stelsel as ’n geheel te visualiseer. Omdat FPA’s per definisie groot is, vereis die analise daarvan deur middel van konvensionele metodes baie rekenaar hulpbronne. Hierdie metodes vereis dus die gebruik van rekenaarbondels of superrekenaars selfs gedurende die ontwerpfase van die antenna, wat baie duur en onprakties is. Daar is dus ’n metode ontwikkel wat gebruik maak van periodiese randvoorwaardes om groot antennaskikkings te analiseer. Die metode benader ’n groot antennaskikking as ’n eindig-opgewekte oneindige skikking van antennas. As gevolg hiervan, word die geheueverbruik met ordegroottes verbeter. Hierdie verbetering plaas dus die analise van groot antennaskikkings binne die vermoëns van huidige persoonlike rekenaars. Die resultate wys ook ’n aanvaarbare graad van akkuraatheid vir gebruik gedurende die ontwerpfase van die skikking. Die bykomende ruisdrwying op elke element as gevolg van wedersydse koppelling is ook bereken. Om dit te vermag, is daar ’n ekwivalente stroombaandiagram ontwikkel wat die gekoppelde stelsel in terme van die ruis- en transmissieparameters van die laeruisversterker (LNA) aan elke ontvangerkanaal en die koppelterme van die antenna skikking voorstel. Laastens word die aktiewe ruistal en die aktiewe ruistermperatuur ook bereken. Die teorie is geïmplimenteer deur gebruik te maak van ’n grafiesegebruikerskoppelvlak (GUI). Die GUI verskaf aan die gebruiker maklike toegang tot die teorie wat onwikkel is in hierdie navorsing. Daar is ook ’n snelnaslaantabel geskep met benaderde waardes van ruiskoppelling vir ’n verskeidenheid waardes van LNA ruistemperature en eerste element koppelling. Die resultate van ’n 8×8 Vivaldiskikking voorbeeld, het ’n beduidende hoeveelheid ruiskoppelling getoon. Die ruiskoppelling het ’n maksimum toename in stelsel ruistemperatuur, Tsys, van ongeveer 9% van die LNA ruistemperatuur tot gevolg gehad. Volgens die huidige Tsys begroting van die SKA, kom dit neer op ’n Tsys toename van byna 1.3 Kelvin. In die konteks van die radioastronomie, kan hierdie toename in ruistemperatuur nie geïgnoreer word nie aangesien dit die bruikbaarheid van die teleskoop vir sekere velde van navorsing nadelig kan beïnvloed.

Propagation-based key establishment is a physical layer method for generating encryption keys based on two radios observing a reciprocal propagation channel. This work explores the impact of mutual coupling when communicating nodes are equipped with multiple antennas, multipath richness in the propagation environment, and practical limitations caused by the nonreciprocal nature of RF circuits on key establishment. First, network theory is used to formulate a model of a realistic communication system which incorporates transmit sources and receive loads, impedance matching networks, low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), mutually coupled antenna arrays, and a passive eavesdropper. Afterwards, a detailed analysis is performed to quantify the impact of coupling, type of impedance matching network, and proximity of a multi-antenna eavesdropper on key rate metrics. Next, the degradation on key establishment caused by the radiocircuitry non-reciprocal contributions to the propagation channel is analyzed. A calibration technique based on total least square algorithm is used to overcome the non-reciprocity. Results demonstrate that the method is highly effective in removing the impact of non-reciprocal circuit contributions over a range of operational parameters. Lastly, for key establishment, the propagation conditions can cause the available key rate to be significantly different from the secure key rate which takes into account the presence of a passive eavesdropper. To study this in detail, a realistic multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) propagation environment is modeled for two communicating radios and an eavesdropper. Afterwards different propagation conditions are assumed and results demonstrate that secure key rate converges to available key rate when K-factor is small and the eavesdropper is not located very close (< 2.5 wavelength) to one of the nodes.

Ce manuscrit présente les travaux de recherche qui concernent l'analyse et la synthèse de structures rayonnantes multidimensionnelles en utilisant une approche qui combine méthode des moments et la transformée de Fourier spatiale. La distribution source (courant électrique) et le diagramme de rayonnement sont liées par la transformée de Fourier spatiale - la théorie de la Relation de Fourier (FR). La distribution des courants est déterminée en utilisant une méthode d'analyse en électromagnétisme (EM), à savoir la Méthode des Moments (MoM). Des travaux antérieurs utilisant la théorie FR ont été réalisés par d'autres auteurs sur des réseaux linéaires - uniformément espacés ou non uniformes. Les sources radiantes élémentaires des dipoles électriques filaires. Les travaux actuels se développent en utilisant la théorie FR à deux et trois dimensions sur des structures réelles. En utilisant la méthode MoM nous pouvons prendre en compte le rayon du fil, sur n'importe quel point d'excitation (générateur de tension ou onde incidente) et le couplage mutuel entre les éléments, créant ainsi un modèle électromagnétique réaliste pour la structure d'antenne / This manuscript presents the research work in the analysis and synthesis of multidimensional radiating structures using an approach that combines Method of Moments and Spatial Fourier Transform. The source distribution (electric current) and radiation pattern are related by the spatial Fourier Transform - Fourier Relation theory (FR). Current distribution is determined using Computational Electromagnetics (CEM), namely Method of Moments (MoM). Previous work using FR theory was done by other authors on linear arrays – uniformly or nonuniformly spaced elemental radiators laid on a straight line. Present work expands FR theory to two and three dimensions on real-world structures. By using MoM we can take into account wire radius, excitation on any point (voltage generator or incident wave) and mutual coupling between elements, thus creating a realistic electromagnetic model for the antenna structure

Broadband antenna arrays have become increasingly popular for various imaging applications, such as radio telescopes and radar, where high sensitivity and resolution are required. High sensitivity requires the development of large scale broadband arrays capable of imaging distant sources at many different wavelengths, in addition to overcoming noise and jamming signals. The design of large scale broadband antenna arrays requires large number antennas, increasing the cost and complexity of the overall system. Moreover, noise sources often vary, depending on their wavelengths and angular locations. This increases the overall design complexity particularly for broadband applications where the performance depends not only on the required bandwidth, but also on the frequency band.This thesis provides a study of broadband antenna array systems for large scale applications. The study investigates different tradeoffs associated with designing such systems and drives a novel design approach to optimize both their cost and performance for a wide range of applications. In addition, the thesis includes measurements of a suitable array to validate the computational predictions. Moreover, the thesis also demonstrates how this study can be utilized to optimize a broadband antenna array system suitable for a low frequency radio telescope.

Modélisation du couplage mutuel présent dans un réseau d'antennes : étude théorique, applications au radar MIMO et à un contexte RFID. Le couplage mutuel est un phénomène électromagnétique susceptible de se produire dans les réseaux d'antennes. Il est dû aux interactions électromagnétiques qui se produisent entre les éléments d'un réseau d'antennes et induisent une modification des paramètres intrinsèques des antennes. Lorsque la distance inter-élément diminue, les effets du couplage mutuel augmentent. La prise en compte du couplage mutuel dans les réseaux d'antennes, lors de leur conception ou dans les algorithmes de traitement d'antennes, permet d'avoir accès aux caractéristiques de rayonnement réel de chaque élément du réseau, ce qui peut par exemple permettre d'améliorer les performances de détection/localisation de cibles à l'aide d'un radar MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output). Dans un contexte RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification), modéliser le couplage mutuel permet de modéliser le système formé par un ensemble de tags et de statuer sur le comportement du système dans une configuration donnée. Cette thèse porte sur la modélisation du couplage mutuel présent dans un réseau d'antennes. Nous avons d'abord proposé une nouvelle méthode de modélisation du diagramme de rayonnement de l'élément actif basée sur la résolution de problèmes d'optimisation au sens des moindres carrés pour trouver les pondérations complexes qui modélisent les interactions électromagnétiques entre les éléments du réseau. Ces pondérations complexes peuvent être utilisées comme des lois d'excitation à appliquer à une antenne isolée décrivant les positions des éléments du réseau, afin d'étudier expérimentalement le comportement d'un réseau d'antennes. Cette modélisation du couplage mutuel est ensuite appliquée dans un contexte radar MIMO où nous montrons qu'il est possible de synthétiser le diagramme de rayonnement de l'élément actif sur une plateforme expérimentale de radar MIMO composée d'une seule antenne émettrice et d'une seule antenne réceptrice qui se déplacent sur des rails en des positions prédéfinies. A la réception, la matrice des signaux reçus est obtenue en appliquant le principe de superposition. Nous avons également cherché à modéliser le couplage mutuel en proposant une formulation théorique de l'impédance mutuelle entre les éléments d'un réseau de dipôles fins aléatoirement répartis dans un plan afin d'appliquer cette modélisation du couplage mutuel à un contexte RFID, où les tags, représentés par les dipôles, sont éparpillés dans un plan et éclairés par un lecteur. Nous avons également proposé une formulation théorique de l'impédance d'entrée du dipôle environné et avons étudié les effets du couplage mutuel sur les deux paramètres intervenant dans le bilan d'une liaison RFID : l'adaptation (la bande passante) et le diagramme de rayonnement du dipôle environné. Nous avons montré qu'il était possible de synthétiser le diagramme de rayonnement du dipôle environné et de trouver la modification de l'adaptation du dipôle environné, ce qui, à terme, permettrait de statuer sur le taux et/ou la distance de lecture d'une communication RFID dans un contexte haute densité / Modeling of the Mutual Coupling Present in an Antenna Array: TheoreticalStudy, Applications to MIMO Radar and RFID ContextMutual coupling is an electromagnetic phenomenon that can occur in antenna arrays. It is due to the electromagnetic interactions that occur between the elements of an antenna array and induce a modification of the intrinsic parameters of the antennas. Taking into account mutual coupling in antenna arrays, when designing them or in antenna processing algorithms, provides access to the real radiation characteristics of each array element which can, for example, improve target detection/localization performance using a Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) radar. In an RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) context, modeling mutual coupling makes it possible to model the system formed by a set of tags and to decide on the behavior of the system in a given configuration. This thesis focuses on the modeling of the mutual coupling present in an antenna array. We first new method for the active element pattern synthesis based on solving optimization problems in the least squares sense to find the complex weights that model electromagnetic interactions between network elements. These complex weights can be used as excitation laws to be applied to an isolated antenna describing the positions of the array elements, in order to experimentally study the behavior of an array of antennas. This mutual coupling modeling is then applied in a MIMO radar context where we show that it is possible to synthesize the radiation pattern of the active element on an experimental MIMO radar platform composed of a single transmitting and a single receiving antenna that moves on rails in predefined positions. On reception, the matrix of received signals is obtained by applying the principle of superposition. We also sought to model mutual coupling by proposing a theoretical formulation of the mutual impedance between the elements of an array of fine dipoles randomly distributed in a plane in order to apply this mutual coupling modeling to an RFID context, where the tags, represented by the dipoles, are scattered in a plane and illuminated by a reader. We also proposed a theoretical formulation of the input impedance of the surrounding dipole and studied the effects of mutual coupling on the two parameters involved in the balance of an RFID link: the adaptation (bandwidth) and the radiation pattern of the surrounding dipole. We have shown that it is possible to synthesize the radiation pattern of the surrounded dipole and to find the modification of the adaptation of the surrounded dipole, which, in the long term, would allow to decide on the read rate and/or the reading distance of an RFID communication in a high density context.

This dissertation explores the expansion of the Electrically Steerable Parasitic Array Radiator (ESPAR) technology to arrays using microstrip patch elements. Scanning arrays of two and three closely-coupled rectangular patch elements are presented, which incorporate no phase shifters. These arrays achieve directive radiation patterns and scanning of up to 26° with maintained impedance match. The scanning is effected by tunable reactive loads which are used to control the mutual coupling between the elements, as well as additional loads which compensate to maintain the appropriate resonant frequency. The design incorporates theoretical analysis of the system of coupled antennas with full-wave simulation. A prototype of the threeelement array at 1 GHz is fabricated and measured to exhibit a maximum gain of 7.4 dBi with an efficiency of 79.1%. Further, the microstrip ESPAR is thoroughly compared to uniformlyilluminated arrays of similar size. To satisfy the need for higher directivity antennas with inexpensive electronic scanning, the microstrip ESPAR is then integrated as a subarray. The three-element subcell fabrication is simplified to a single layer with an inverted-Y groove in the ground plane, allowing for DC biasing without the need for the radial biasing stubs or tuning stubs found in the two-layer design. The 1 GHz ESPAR array employs a corporate feed network consisting of a Wilkinson power divider with switchable delay line phase shifts, ring hybrid couplers, and achieves a gain of 12.1 dBi at boresight with ±20° scanning and low side lobes. This array successfully illustrates the cost savings associated with ESPAR subarray scanning and the associated reduction in required number of phase shifters in the RF front end.

Yes / This paper presented a planar printed multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) antenna with a dimension of 100 x 45 mm2. It composed of two crescent shaped radiators placed symmetrically with respect to the ground plane. Neutralization line applied to suppress mutual coupling. The proposed antenna examined both theoretically and experimentally, which achieves an impedance bandwidth of 18.67% (over 2.04-2.46 GHz) with a reflection coefficient < -10 dB and mutual coupling minimization of < -20 dB. An evaluation of MIMO antennas is presented, with analysis of correlation coefficient, total active reflection coefficient (TARC), capacity loss and channel capacity. These characteristics indicate that the proposed antenna suitable for some wireless applications.

Due to the increasing demand and a more complicated environment for signal transmitting, the traditional antenna can hardly satisfy the current technology needs. For a telecommunication service provider, a dual-band integrated antenna array is a good way to reduce cost and increase the capacity since it can operate at different bands. The active part can also achieve beam-forming to adapt to multiple environments. Since two arrays are integrated together, the interface and coupling will be a problem. The performance of the active array is also important since it is supposed to be operated at a complex environment. This thesis will focus on how to achieve better performance of active array and reduce the impact of passive array such as mutual coupling and the change of field distribution of active array. In this thesis project, the limiting factor for the performance of active array is the narrow bandwidth. To solve that, we use another layer of parasitic patch to generate multiple resonances near the fundamental mode. For the passive antenna array, we use crossed-dipole such that the thin wires will block less signal. The return loss result and radiation pattern comparison can show that the bandwidth is broadened with parasitic patches, and the passive array has little influence on the active array. It is a proper way to design a dual-band antenna product with a low budget. / På grund av den ökande efterfrågan och en mer komplicerad miljö för signalsändning kan den traditionella antennen knappast tillfredsställa den nya teknologins behov. För leverantören av telekommunikationstjänster är en integrerad dubbelbandsantennuppsättning ett bra sätt att minska kostnaderna och öka kapaciteten eftersom den kan fungera på olika band. Den aktiva delen kan också uppnå strålformning för att anpassa sig till flera miljöer. Eftersom två arrayer är integrerade tillsammans blir gränssnittet och kopplingen ett problem. Prestandan för en aktiv array är också viktig eftersom den är tänkt att användas i en komplex miljö. Detta examensarbete kommer att fokusera på hur man uppnår bättre prestanda för en aktiv array och minskar effekten av den passiva arrayen. För det här examensarbetet är den främsta faktorn som begränsar prestandan för aktiv array den smala bandbredden. För att lösa detta använder vi ett annat lager av parasitisk patch för att generera flera resonanser nära det grundläggande läget. För passiv antennuppsättning använder vi korsade dipoler så att de tunna ledningarna blockerar mindre av signalen. Jämförelsen av returförlustresultatet och strålningsmönster kan visa att bandbredden breddas med parasitiska patch, och den passiva arrayen har liten inverkan på den aktiva arrayen. Det är ett riktigt sätt att designa en dual-band antennprodukt med en låg budget.

A mathematical model for a multiple-input multiple-output radar system is presented. The model is used to track signals through the system in order to identify the impact of antenna array mutual coupling on radar system performance. Simulations using the model provide quantitative assessment of the performance degradation as a function of antenna coupling strength. Specifically, the results show that coupling can cause a target to appear at an angle notably different than its actual angle and can cause an increase in the side lobe level. A compensation technique is presented that completely removes these effects for practical levels of coupling. However, it is highly sensitive to inaccurate measurements of the system as well as time-varying system components. The technique may degrade the system performance further in some cases. Matching network design techniques and their impact on the system performance are also examined. For some levels of coupling they provide marginal improvement but may decrease system performance for other levels.

Yes / An effective method is presented for suppressing mutual coupling between adjacent radiating elements which is based on metasurface isolation for MIMO and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems. This is achieved by choking surface current waves induced over the patch antenna by inserting a cross-shaped metasurface structure between the radiating elements. Each arm of the cross-shaped structure constituting the metasurface is etched with meander-line slot (MLS). Effectiveness of the metasurface is demonstrated for a2×2antenna array that operates over six frequency sub-bands in X, Ku and K-bands. With the proposed technique, the maximum improvement achieved in attenuating mutual coupling between neighbouring antennas is: 8.5 dB (8-8.4 GHz), 28 dB (9.6-10.8 GHz), 27 dB (11.7-12.6 GHz), 7.5 dB (13.4-14.2 GHz), 13 dB (16.5-16.8 GHz) and 22.5 dB (18.5-20.3 GHz). Furthermore, with the proposed technique (i) minimum center-to-center separation between the radiating elements can be reduced to 0.26λ0, where λ0 is 8.0 GHz; (ii) use of ground-plane or defected ground structures are unnecessary; (iii) use of short-circuited via-holes are avoided; (iv) it eliminates the issue with poor front-to-back ratio; and (v) it can be applied to existing arrays retrospectively. / H2020-MSCA-ITN-2016 SECRET-722424 and the financial support from the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) under grant EP/E0/22936/1