This thesis examines the personalisation of Pakeha (European) post-mortem practices in New Zealand. While much of the discourse surrounding funerary and disposal processes maintains that contemporary practices demonstrate a �denial� of death and funeral director esurience, funeral directors themselves have argued that the austere Anglophone approach to death has been superseded by personalised practices. This transformation has become particularly evident in the last two decades and emphasises a historic shift to funeral services that encompass the heterogeneity of late-modern individuals. The aim of this thesis, however, is not to recapitulate funeral director rhetoric or reiterate the criticisms levelled at the industry, but to critically examine the implications and manifestations of personalisation, and explore the funeral directors� role in the provision of contemporary funeral services. In addition to archival research, this ethnographic endeavour includes in-depth interviews with funeral directors (and related occupational groups) and an extended period of participant observation. The theoretical issues explored in this thesis are grounded in this ethnographic data. This study reveals that personalisation is integrally linked to constructions of grief, the pastoral role of funeral directors, and Foucault�s concept of bio-power. Funeral director participants asseverated that funeral practices had �evolved� to effect the �healthy� resolution of grief. Personalised funerals represented a re-alignment of �natural� human needs and cultural practices, and funeral director rhetoric amalgamated essentialist interpretations of grief with personalised memories and continuing bonds (Klass and Walter 2001). Funeral directors explicitly linked personalisation to secularisation, emphasising the perceived lack of �guidance� and �care� in contemporary society. Although �impersonal� religious funerals provided funeral specialists with an important point of departure, many funeral directors emphasised the pastoral dimension of contemporary funeral directing. This dimension constitutes a key component of the funeral directors� role and permeated all facets of funeral service - particularly the increasing range of after-care funeral options. Although the funeral director rhetoric emphasises the democratisation of funeral practices and the primacy of individuality, an examination of the discourse reveals that this personalisation also demonstrates the normalising technologies integral to Foucault�s concept of �pastoral power�. I argue that funeral directors play a significant role in articulating the boundaries of �appropriate� funeral behaviour by accentuating the importance of �authenticity�, �dignity� and �healthy grief�. These concepts underline the expertise of funeral directors, define the acceptable parameters of post-mortem practices, and reify the integral involvement of funeral directors in the construction process. The specific subjectivity promoted by funeral directors constitute individuals that are not only �honest� and �real�, but recognise the �need� for a funeral service, emotional expression, and memorialisation. These individuals similarly realise the importance of integrating the deceased into their own biographies, while acknowledging the significance of guidance and control. This subjectivity clearly legitimises the role of the contemporary New Zealand funeral director. This thesis illustrates, therefore, that funeral directors play a salient role in articulating bio-power within New Zealand society, and that this endeavour is integrally linked to the occupations� continuing pursuit of professional identity.

The present study aimed to determine whether stable isotope techniques can be universally applied to detect landfill leachate contamination in aquatic systems. Results of analysis of ��C in dissolved inorganic carbon ([delta]��C-DIC), deuterium and �⁸O in water ([delta]D-H₂O and [delta]�⁸O-H₂O), and �⁵N of dissolved inorganic nitrogen components ([delta]�⁵N-NH₄⁺ and [delta]�⁵N-NO₃⁻) were presented for leachate, surface, and ground water samples collected from seven landfills located throughout New Zealand between 2003 and 2006. The unique conditions within a landfill lead to measurable fractionations in the isotopic ratios of the products of degradation. Results of isotope and ancillary parameter analyses enabled the discernment of different types of leachate, resulting from different microbial processes within the landfill environment. The isotopic characterisation of leachate enabled improved interpretation of geochemical data from potentially impacted surface and ground waters, and provides useful insight to landfill development for landfill operators. A general isotopic fingerprint delineated by [delta]��C-DIC and [delta]D-H₂O values showed leachate to be isotopically distinct from uncontaminated surface and ground water for samples analysed in the present study. However, not all water samples identified as leachate-impacted via site-specific assessments exhibited isotopic values that overlapped with the general leachate fingerprint. This highlights the need to investigate each site individually, within the context of a possibly global leachate isotope signature. Site-specific investigations revealed the effectiveness of applying [delta]�⁸O-H₂O and [delta]�⁵N-NH₄⁺ or [delta]�⁵N-NO₃⁻, in addition to [delta]��C-DIC and [delta]D-H₂O analyses, to the detection of leachate impact on aquatic systems. Furthermore, ancillary parameters such as alkalinity and ammonium concentration enabled the construction of simple isotope mixing models for an estimate of the quantity of leachate contribution. Results of isotopic investigations of stream biota suggested potential for the development of bio-indicators to monitor leachate influence on aquatic ecosystems in landfill-associated streams. The present study demonstrated the probative power of stable isotope techniques applied to investigations of leachate impact on landfill-associated aquatic systems.

Birds are potentially vulnerable to the toxicity of certain environmental pollutants due to limited detoxification capabilities of their liver microsomal cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. In wild birds, ethoxyresorufin O-deethylation (EROD) activity, a marker of CYP1A activity in mammals and domestic chickens, has been used as a biomarker of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The aim of the present study was to investigate hepatic CYP activity as an indication of detoxification capacity in New Zealand birds. In addition to the use of conventional in vitro CYP activity assays, the applicability of a noninvasive CYP activity assay was tested using caffeine as the in vivo substrate. The ontogeny of liver microsomal 3-hydroxylation of quinine, a marker of human CYP3A activity, was investigated in Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) from Ross Island, Antarctica. The results indicate that chicks (2-4 weeks old) possess a CYP3A-like isoform(s) as active as but not identical to the CYP3A-like isoform(s) in adults. Total CYP content was low at 2 weeks of age and increased rapidly and linearly approaching adult levels by 4 weeks of age implying a rapid development of CYPs other than the CYP3A-like isoform(s). The main study was conducted on adult (and some post-fledging immature) birds of two native species, the herbivorous paradise shelduck (Tadorna variegata) and the omnivorous southern black-backed gull (Larus dominicanus). Birds were shot for liver collection at three sites in the South Island of New Zealand; West Coast, Lake Waipori and Dunedin landfill, in 2001-2002. The results indicate that shelducks posssess multiple CYP isoforms that independently catalyse EROD, p-nitrophenol hydroxylation (p-NP) and erythromycin demethylation (EMD), markers of mammalian CYP1A, CYP2E and CYP3A activity, respectively. In contrast, gulls appear to possess a single isoform catalysing both EROD and p-NP but possess no isoform capable of catalysing EMD. EROD activity was high in shelducks and gulls from the landfill site, although it was not significantly associated with liver concentrations of PCBs (0.079-6.2 and 8.2-310 ng/g in shelducks and gulls, respectively), PCDD/PCDFs, toxic equivalents (TEQs) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) (0.85-317 and 44-4800 ng/g in shelducks and gulls, respectively) in either species. In shelduck livers from the landfill site, EROD was positively associated with Pb concentration but negatively associated with Hg concentration. Assessment of PCB congener patterns based on concentration ratios of individual congeners to the reference congener, 2,2�,4,4�,5,5�-hexachlorobiphenyl (IUPAC #153), indicate that the metabolism of 2,4,4�-trichlorobiphenyl (PCB#28) and 2,4,4�,5-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB#74) is inducible in shelducks but not in gulls. Hepatic reduced glutathione (GSH) content was higher in gulls than in shelducks suggesting greater resistance to oxidative stress in gulls. The in vivo caffeine metabolism test as a noninvasive method to determine CYP1A activity in shelducks and gulls gave a positive outcome. The test was performed by administration of a single intraperitoneal dose of caffeine (1 mg/kg body weight) followed by blood collection at 2 and 4 h after caffeine administration for determination of the serum concentration ratio of the metabolite, paraxanthine, to caffeine (PX/CA) by HPLC. In both species, the PX/CA ratio was markedly increased by pretreatment with the model CYP1A inducer, β-naphthoflavone (BNF). BNF treatment also increased EROD activity determined after death (80-fold and 20-fold compared to controls in shelducks and gulls, respectively). However, sensitivity of the PX/CA ratio approach was lower in gulls than in shelducks due presumably to the formation of unidentified caffeine metabolites in gulls. Immunoblot analysis failed to reveal increased CYP protein levels caused by BNF treatment in shelducks and gulls due to poor cross-reactivity of avian proteins with polyclonal antibodies raised against mammalian CYPs. EROD activity was also determined in livers of the piscivorous yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) (1 chick, 3 post-fledging immature, 1 adult) from Otago, South Island of New Zealand, and found to be below the limit of quantitation. The adult liver contained 18.5 ng/g of total PCBs suggesting that EROD in this species is insensitive to induction. Comparison of the PCB congener pattern based on [PCBx]/[PCB#153] between the penguin and its putative source of PCB exposure, New Zealand marine fish, indicates that CYPs in yellow-eyed penguins metabolise 2,2�,5,5�-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB#52) and 2,2�,4,5,5�-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB#101) as in many other avian species. The findings of this study highlight substantial species differences in CYP activity in wild birds. Whether CYP expression in New Zealand birds is genetically distinct from birds in other parts of the world may warrant further investigation.

Numerous supraglacial and proglacial lakes have developed on debris-covered glaciers in conjunction with 20th-century retreat associated with global warming. When a glacier holds a substantial debris cover on its lower reach and/or is calving into a proglacial water body, the behaviour of its terminus can be modified to varying degrees compared to that of land-terminating or debris-free glaciers. The terminus is not just retreating from its frontal position but it is disintegrating through several processes that are linked. An improved understanding of these glacier margins is needed for the prediction and management of hazards associated with these types of lakes for hydroelectric power generation, recreational purposes and areas threatened by potential glacier outburst floods as well as for the interpretation of glacio-geological records and reconstruction of former glacial environments and palaeoclimate. The principal research question of this study is how processes of ice loss contribute to the terminus disintegration of a debris-covered, lake-calving glacier. This is addressed by an application of a field-based strategy which includes extensive field observations of variables, processes and their controls, and subsequent analysis of the data in the light of previous models and concepts. The study attempts to combine and integrate different aspects of glaciological research that have previously been examined mostly separately. It investigates the prevalent processes at the glacier terminus and their controls over different time periods ranging from days to years at Mueller, Hooker and Tasman Glaciers in Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand. The data form the basis for models of calving and pond development and future retreat scenarios. This study has demonstrated that this glacial environment is characterised by ice-frontal processes with complex inter-relationships that vary between glaciers and in particular between stages of terminus development. While surface ice melt in the terminus area is substantially reduced by supraglacial debris, sub-debris melt contributes the largest fraction of ice loss. Other important effects of debris are restraining thermal undercutting, reducing subaqueous melt and decreasing buoyancy. Data from supraglacial ponds and proglacial lakes show that limnological factors become increasingly important with increasing pond/lake size. Changes in water currents and temperature lead to changes in significance and rates of ice loss processes, the most important being the change from melting to predominantly calving. This study has confirmed the hypothesis that thermal undercutting is the rate-controlling process for calving. This process is controlled by the cliff geometry, debris supply, subaqueous geometry and water temperatures, currents and level variations. The results from the examination of calving processes suggest that the process of regular, progressive calving through the stages suggested previously may not be widely applicable to slow-moving, lake-calving glaciers. The several forms of subaerial calving identified in this study can present themselves as largely independent events, a combination of events or as a progression. At the central submerged part of the ice face, subaqueous ice melt is likely to be the dominant form of ice loss, leading to horizontal ice loss. Subaqueous calving is prevalent in gently-sloping lateral areas, leading to vertical ice loss. This process is controlled by buoyancy forces which are affected by sedimentation and lake and glacier geometry. The onset of subaqueous calving in the earlier stages of lake development is a crucial process for the transition to faster disintegration and ice loss, accelerating subaqueous melt. Due to the complex inter-relationships attempts to formulate general relationships between calving or retreat rates and other glaciological parameters may not be feasible.

New Zealand Maori and Pacific Island ethnic groups are marking up an increasingly larger proportion of New Zealand�s population. Intercanthal distance (ICD) and management of congenital and acquired deformities of the craniofacial complex. The ICD and IPD have been found to differ to establish these measurements for New zealand Maori and Samoan populations. For New Zealand Maori males the mean ICD was 32.1mm with a standard deviation (SD) of 2.6mm, and the mean IPD was 63.3mm, SD 3.8mm. For New Zealand Maori females the mean ICD was 30.7mm, SD2.7mm and the mean IPD was 60.1mm, SD2.8mm. For Samoan males the mean ICD was 33.9mm, SD2.5mm and the mean IPD 64.5mm, SD3.5mm. For Samoan females the mean ICD was 32.9mm, SD2.3mm and their mean IPD was 61.7mm, SD2.8mm. Consistent with other ethnicities New Zealand Maori and Samoan males have wider values for ICD and IPD than females respectively. New Zealand Maori measurements tend to lie within the normal values established for Caucasian populations, whilst Samoans have larger values.

This research engages critically with major public sector accountability theories in relation to the development of law centres in Aotearoa/New Zealand (and comparative international examples) focusing on the two centres in Otago, the Ngai Tahu Maori Law Centre and the Dunedin Community Law Centre. Definitions of accountability are argued to be embedded within theoretical discourses which produce definable models of accountability corresponding to these theoretical statements. Case studies of the discourses of both law centres and their funding bodies are described and contrasted in terms of their views of the role of law centres, interaction with various interest groups and their accountability relationships. The data identifies a desire of both community law centres to engage with a communitarian, �bottom-up�, model of accountability, in contrast to the former social democratic-bureaucratic and current liberal �stakeholder� and �contract� models of the official funding agencies. The current dominance of the liberal �stakeholder� discourse is seen as based on professional power, hierarchical legal structure and control of funding. It is argued that any shift in the dominance of power relationships surrounding community law centres in Aotearoa/New Zealand would entail a strengthening of ties and links with the community, through seeking alternative power supports, a participatory structure and locally controlled funding. Keywords: accountability; power relationships; community law centres; dominance; community.

The Maori people - those Polynesians who moved to the cooler islands of New Zealand - possessed a mythology that matched their own great qualities. They had a myth of the Creation that rivals Genesis in beauty, a pantheon of gods and heroes who can be mentioned in the same breath as those of the Greeks, and a store of splendid tribal histories, half factual, half fabulous, ... These are the opening lines of the Preface to a recently published selection of Maori myths and legends in translation: they indicate how strongly many modern New Zealanders are attracted to the various forms of Maori literature. But this is no new phenomen. For the receptive Pakeha mind has been fascinated by Maori mythology since the very beginnings of European settlement in New Zealand. Indeed, if anything, the magnetic appeal of Maori myth and legend was probably most evident in the earliest years of intercultural contact. Thomas Kendall was one of the first missionaries to work among the Maori people. Unlike most of his fellow-evangelists, Kendall determined to study and so understand the religion and customs of his adopted flock. Unfortunately, this �tragic, Faustian figure� was soon out of his depth. Kendall wrote, I am now, after a long, anxious, and painful study, arriving at the very foundation and groundwork of the cannibalism and superstitions of these islanders. All their notions are metaphysical, and I have been so poisoned withh the apparent sublimity of their ideas that I have been almost completely turned from a Christian to a heathen. Another early missionary, Richard Taylor, also studied Maori beliefs in depth. But Taylor, though he felt impelled by his inter-course with the Maori to write a long and influential treatise on his interpretation of Maoritanga, did manage to retain a degree of scholarly objectivity towards his subject. Yet even so, Taylor acknowledges in his treatise that, The Maori mythology is extremely interesting, and quite different from what we should expect from a people sunk in barbarism. ... Their ideas in some respects are not so puerile, as those even of the more civilized heathens of old, and without the light of inspiration, could not be expected to be more advanced. Nor were secular scholars immune to "Maori fever." Sir George Grey wrote of the Maori that � their traditions are puerile� and their �religious faith ... is absurd�. Yet during the eight years that he was Governor of the nascent colony of New Zealand in a period of constant interracial stress, Grey devoted a great deal of what little spare time he had to the collection and publication of the myths and legends, and �the ancient traditional poems, religious chants, and songs, of the Maori race�-- Introduction. Four poets are considered: Alfred Domett (1811-1887), Arthur Henry Adams (1872-1936), Jessie Mackay (1864-1938), Blanche E. Baughan (1870-1958).

Seabirds have become adapted for foraging in an oceanic environment that can be highly dynamic. Oceanographic processes determine the spatial distribution of seabird prey, while seasonality often has a temporal influence on prey availability. In penguins, these factors are reflected in the different species� foraging strategies. Penguins can broadly be categorized as inshore foragers that live in subtropical to temperate regions and profit from a stable food supply throughout the year close to their breeding sites, and offshore foragers that breed in a pelagic environment at higher latitudes where oceanographic processes and seasonality create much more dynamic, temporally limited prey situations. In this light, offshore foragers can be expected to be much more flexible in their foraging behaviour so as to quickly respond to changes in a dynamic marine environment, while inshore foragers are more likely to exhibit predictable foraging patterns. I examined the foraging ecology of two New Zealand penguin species - the offshore foraging Snares penguin Eudyptes robustus and the inshore foraging Yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes and how their foraging strategies reflect an adaptation to the marine environment they exploit. Diet composition of breeding Snares penguins (incubation and early chick-guard) was determined using the water-offloading method. Before the chicks hatched, the penguins generally brought little food back from their long foraging trips. During chick-guard, the stomach contents comprised mainly of crustaceans (~55%), fish (~24%) and cephalopods (~21%). However, the presence at times of many fish otoliths and squid beaks suggests that the latter two prey classes may play an even more important role in the adults� diet than the simple percentages based on mass suggest. The penguins� nesting routines were strongly synchronised between the years and correlated with the onset of the spring planktonic bloom. Using GPS data loggers and dive recorders I found that during the incubation phase, male penguins that performed long (ca. 2 week) foraging trips exhibited a strong affinity to forage in the Subtropical Front some 200 km east of the Snares. At that stage (late mid-October) the front featured elevated chlorophyll a concentrations, a pattern that can be observed every year. Thus, it seems that the front represents a reliable and predictable source of food for the male penguins. After the males returned, the female penguins also performed long foraging trips (<1 week) but never reached the front, primarily because they had to time their return to the hatching of their chicks. After the chicks had hatched, the female Snares penguins were the sole providers of food. At this stage, the penguins performed short foraging trips (1-3 days) and foraged halfway between the Snares and Stewart Island (ca. 70-90 km north of the Snares), where nutrient-rich coastal waters flow eastwards to form the Southland Current. The penguins concentrated their diving effort in these waters, underlining the importance of the warm coastal waters as a food source for breeding Snares penguins. However, diving behaviour between 2003 and 2004 differed with penguins searching for prey at greater depths in the latter year. This underlines the Snares penguins� behavioural flexibility in response to a changing marine environment. The Yellow-eyed penguins as typical inshore foragers showed very consistent foraging patterns at all stages. GPS logger deployments on penguins at Oamaru revealed that the birds foraged almost exclusively at the seafloor and targeted specific areas that featured reefs or epibenthic communities. As a result, the penguins� at-sea movements appeared conservative and at times almost stereotypic. Nevertheless, a comparison of Yellow-eyed penguins breeding on the adjacent Codfish and Stewart islands revealed a degree of plasticity in the species� foraging behaviour. Birds from Codfish Island extended their foraging ranges considerably and switched from primarily bottom to mid-water foraging during the post-guard stage of breeding. It seems likely that this switch is a result of enhanced feeding conditions (e.g. increased prey abundance/quality) in an area further away from the island, but the time required to get there renders this strategy not viable when chicks are small and need to be guarded and fed on a daily basis. As such, the change of behaviour represents a traditional pattern rather than a dynamic response to a sudden change in the marine environment. In comparison, penguins from Stewart Island showed consistent foraging patterns during all stages of breeding. Given the high levels of chick starvation on Stewart Island, the lack of plasticity in foraging behaviour is surprising and might indicate that Yellow-eyed penguins find it difficult to react quickly to a sub-optimal food situation. Overall, it seems that Yellow-eyed penguins show a specialisation for a consistent benthic environment and, thus, lack the behavioural flexibility apparent in Snares penguins, which find their food in a changing pelagic marine environment.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the resilience and vulnerability of Taranaki communities to volcanic hazards, and to propose a strategy to ensure the safety and longevity of Taranaki residents in the event of an eruption. Mt Taranaki is a dormant volcano that is surrounded by a ring plain populated by over 100,000 people. The volcano has had an average eruptive cycle of 330 years, with the last eruption dated at ~1755 AD. Hazards include ash fall, lahars, debris avalanches and pyroclastic density currents. Inglewood, Stratford and Opunake are the largest population centres located in moderate to high hazard zones, and for this reason were chosen as the study communities. Resilience is defined as the capacity to respond to a hazard event by physically and psychologically recovering, adapting to, or changing to similar or better conditions than those experienced before the event. Vulnerability is defined to be people�s incapacity to cope with a hazardous event as a result of their personal characteristics. A person�s vulnerability and resilience is influenced by demographic variables, socio-cognitive variables and preparedness. Inglewood, Stratford and Opunake adults have good self-efficacy and action-coping use, fair risk perceptions, outcome expectancy and response efficacy, but poor understanding of event timing relative to eruption probability, critical awareness, preparedness and information-seeking intentions and preparedness levels. Preparedness is found to be influenced by residents� intentions to prepare, which in turn are influenced by critical awareness, action-coping and outcome expectancy. Taranaki students have a fair awareness of hazard and knowledge of correct response behaviours to various hazards. Preparedness, in terms of preparedness measures undertaken, emergency plans made and emergency practices in place, is low. Students who have participated in hazard-education programmes have a better knowledge of response behaviours, lower levels of hazard-related fear, and reported higher level of preparedness. Spatial analyses, carried out to determine the geographic distribution of at-risk groups within the study communities, showed that the areas most at-risk tend to be those with the highest population densities. The spatial analysis was not as beneficial as expected, due to small data sets, but did provide some results to be considered as a basis for further research. Effective public education can be achieved when delivered to a set of guidelines, such as providing information regularly through multiple media and sources, ensuring consistent messages, targeting information to at-risk groups and monitoring programme effectiveness. Community capacity building projects decrease aspects of vulnerability and build resilience by working at a local scale and targeting at-risk groups. Psychological preparedness education helps citizens to mentally prepare for an event and should be a component of all projects. The proposed strategy calls for (a) forming partnerships with relevant stakeholders to assist with public education, research, and funding, (b) further research into the characteristics of Taranaki communities and effective public education campaigns, (c) the development and implementation of a public education schedule and projects that build community capacity, and d) long-term planning, periodic revision of programmes and consistent public engagement.

The purpose of this research was to create the longest possible, homogeneous, historical daily temperature dataset for Southern New Zealand, analyse the changes in extreme temperatures and investigate atmospheric circulation patterns that contributed to these changes. Daily minimum and maximum temperature data for Southern New Zealand were captured from paper records and extended to include all available archival data from the region. This dataset was digitised and contains temperatures from 26 stations that began operation sometime in the period between 1852 and 1953. Stations include the Chatham and Campbell islands. Adjustments for inhomogeneities in the dataset were made using a frequency distribution matching method. Dunedin has a record dating from 1852, the longest in the Southern Hemisphere south of 40�S latitude. Reconstruction of a homogeneous record for Dunedin was made by taking into account site changes from contemporaneous modem data logger measurements and from an analysis of overlapping period data. Temperatures showed no clear pattern of change in Southern New Zealand from the mid 1800s through to the early 1900s with the exception of a brief cold period that occurred around 1900. However, from the 1940s through to the 1970s both minimum and maximum extreme temperatures showed strong warming. These trends were duplicated over the shorter length period of record for other regions, especially in Eastern Canterbury. The warming trend was maintained over the period 1979 - 2003, but only in the colder ends of minimum and maximum distributions. Temperatures have become less cold due to the recent compression of the temperature distribution. There was a marked decrease in cold days at stations in the south and offshore islands. Atmospheric circulation pattems, and in particular ENSO, were shown to affect extreme temperatures recorded in Southern New Zealand. Anomalous southwesterlies associated with El Nino events produce cooler temperatures and increase the numbers of cold extreme temperatures, while anomalous northeasterlies typical of La Nina increase the numbers of warm extreme temperatures. Monthly frequencies of extreme temperatures were primarily affected by anomalous south/north meridional airflows to increase cold/warm extreme temperature frequencies. Zonal airflows have a lesser, but topographically influenced effect. Record hot and cold temperatures in Southern New Zealand were a product of the interaction between advective northerly and southerly airflows respectively, and local climatic effects caused by topography.